New Physics and Its Evolution — The Ether - Part 2

§ 4. ELECTRICAL OSCILLATIONS

The experiments of Hertz are well known.

We know how the Bonn physicist developed, by means of oscillating electric discharges, displacement currents and induction effects in the whole of the space round the spark-gap; and how he excited by induction at some point in a wire a perturbation which afterwards is propagated along the wire, and how a resonator enabled him to detect the effect produced.

The most important point made evident by the observation of interference phenomena and subsequently verified directly by M. Blondlot, is that the electromagnetic perturbation is propagated with the speed of light, and this result condemns for ever all the hypotheses which fail to attribute any part to the intervening media in the propagation of an induction phenomenon.

If the inducing action were, in fact, to operate directly between the inducing and the induced circuits, the propagation should be instantaneous; for if an interval were to occur between the moment when the cause acted and the one when the effect was produced, during this interval there would no longer be anything anywhere, since the intervening medium does not come into play, and the phenomenon would then disappear.

Leaving on one side the manifold but purely electrical consequences of this and the numerous researches relating to the production or to the properties of the waves--some of which, those of MM.

Sarrazin and de la Rive, Righi, Turpain, Lebedeff, Decombe, Barbillon, Drude, Gutton, Lamotte, Lecher, etc. , are, however, of the highest order--I shall only mention here the studies more particularly directed to the establishment of the identity of the electromagnetic and the luminous waves.

The only differences which subsist are necessarily those due to the considerable discrepancy which exists between the durations of the periods of these two categories of waves.

The length of wave corresponding to the first spark-gap of Hertz was about 6 metres, and the longest waves perceptible by the retina are 7/10 of a micron.

[24] [Footnote 24: See footnote 3. ] These radiations are so far apart that it is not astonishing that their properties have not a perfect similitude.

Thus phenomena like those of diffraction, which are negligible in the ordinary conditions under which light is observed, may here assume a preponderating importance.

To play the part, for example, with the Hertzian waves, which a mirror 1 millimetre square plays with regard to light, would require a colossal mirror which would attain the size of a myriametre[25] square.

[Footnote 25: I. e. , 10,000 metres.

--ED.

] The efforts of physicists have to-day, however, filled up, in great part, this interval, and from both banks at once they have laboured to build a bridge between the two domains.

We have seen how Rubens showed us calorific rays 60 metres long; on the other hand, MM.

Lecher, Bose, and Lampa have succeeded, one after the other, in gradually obtaining oscillations with shorter and shorter periods.

There have been produced, and are now being studied, electromagnetic waves of four millimetres; and the gap subsisting in the spectrum between the rays left undetected by sylvine and the radiations of M. Lampa now hardly comprise more than five octaves--that is to say, an interval perceptibly equal to that which separates the rays observed by M. Rubens from the last which are evident to the eye.

The analogy then becomes quite close, and in the remaining rays the properties, so to speak, characteristic of the Hertzian waves, begin to appear.

For these waves, as we have seen, the most transparent bodies are the most perfect electrical insulators; while bodies still slightly conducting are entirely opaque.

The index of refraction of these substances tends in the case of great wave-lengths to become, as the theory anticipates, nearly the square root of the dielectric constant.

MM.

Rubens and Nichols have even produced with the waves which remain phenomena of electric resonance quite similar to those which an Italian scholar, M. Garbasso, obtained with electric waves.

This physicist showed that, if the electric waves are made to impinge on a flat wooden stand, on which are a series of resonators parallel to each other and uniformly arranged, these waves are hardly reflected save in the case where the resonators have the same period as the spark-gap.

If the remaining rays are allowed to fall on a glass plate silvered and divided by a diamond fixed on a dividing machine into small rectangles of equal dimensions, there will be observed variations in the reflecting power according to the orientation of the rectangles, under conditions entirely comparable with the experiment of Garbasso.

In order that the phenomenon be produced it is necessary that the remaining waves should be previously polarized.

This is because, in fact, the mechanism employed to produce the electric oscillations evidently gives out vibrations which occur on a single plane and are subsequently polarized.

We cannot therefore entirely assimilate a radiation proceeding from a spark-gap to a ray of natural light.

For the synthesis of light to be realized, still other conditions must be complied with.

During a luminous impression, the direction and the phase change millions of times in the vibration sensible to the retina, yet the damping of this vibration is very slow.

With the Hertzian oscillations all these conditions are changed--the damping is very rapid but the direction remains invariable.

Every time, however, that we deal with general phenomena which are independent of these special conditions, the parallelism is perfect;

and with the waves, we have put in evidence the reflexion, refraction, total reflexion, double reflexion, rotatory polarization, dispersion, and the ordinary interferences produced by rays travelling in the same direction and crossing each other at a very acute angle, or the interferences analogous to those which Wiener observed with rays of the contrary direction.

A very important consequence of the electromagnetic theory foreseen by Maxwell is that the luminous waves which fall on a surface must exercise on this surface a pressure equal to the radiant energy which exists in the unit of volume of the surrounding space.

M.

Lebedeff a few years ago allowed a sheaf of rays from an arc lamp to fall on a deflection radiometer,[26] and thus succeeded in revealing the existence of this pressure.

Its value is sufficient, in the case of matter of little density and finely divided, to reduce and even change into repulsion the attractive action exercised on bodies by the sun.

This is a fact formerly conjectured by Faye, and must certainly play a great part in the deformation of the heads of comets.

[Footnote 26: By this M. Poincaré appears to mean a radiometer in which the vanes are not entirely free to move as in the radiometer of Crookes but are suspended by one or two threads as in the instrument devised by Professor Poynting.

--ED.

] More recently, MM.

Nichols and Hull have undertaken experiments on this point.

They have measured not only the pressure, but also the energy of the radiation by means of a special bolometer.

They have thus arrived at numerical verifications which are entirely in conformity with the calculations of Maxwell.

The existence of these pressures may be otherwise foreseen even apart from the electromagnetic theory, by adding to the theory of undulations the principles of thermodynamics.

Bartoli, and more recently Dr Larmor, have shown, in fact, that if these pressures did not exist, it would be possible, without any other phenomenon, to pass heat from a cold into a warm body, and thus transgress the principle of Carnot.

§ 5. THE X RAYS

It appears to-day quite probable that the X rays should be classed among the phenomena which have their seat in the luminous ether.

Doubtless it is not necessary to recall here how, in December 1895, Röntgen, having wrapped in black paper a Crookes tube in action, observed that a fluorescent platinocyanide of barium screen placed in the neighbourhood, had become visible in the dark, and that a photographic plate had received an impress.

The rays which come from the tube, in conditions now well known, are not deviated by a magnet, and, as M. Curie and M. Sagnac have conclusively shown, they carry no electric charge.

They are subject to neither reflection nor refraction, and very precise and very ingenious measurements by M. Gouy have shown that, in their case, the refraction index of the various bodies cannot be more than a millionth removed from unity.

We knew from the outset that there existed various X rays differing from each other as, for instance, the colours of the spectrum, and these are distinguished from each other by their unequal power of passing through substances.

M.

Sagnac, particularly, has shown that there can be obtained a gradually decreasing scale of more or less absorbable rays, so that the greater part of their photographic action is stopped by a simple sheet of black paper.

These rays figure among the secondary rays discovered, as is known, by this ingenious physicist.

The X rays falling on matter are thus subjected to transformations which may be compared to those which the phenomena of luminescence produce on the ultra-violet rays.

M.

Benoist has founded on the transparency of matter to the rays a sure and practical method of allowing them to be distinguished, and has thus been enabled to define a specific character analogous to the colour of the rays of light.

It is probable also that the different rays do not transport individually the same quantity of energy.

We have not yet obtained on this point precise results, but it is roughly known, since the experiments of MM.

Rutherford and M'Clung, what quantity of energy corresponds to a pencil of X rays.

These physicists have found that this quantity would be, on an average, five hundred times larger than that brought by an analogous pencil of solar light to the surface of the earth.

What is the nature of this energy?

The question does not appear to have been yet solved.

It certainly appears, according to Professors Haga and Wind and to Professor Sommerfeld, that with the X rays curious experiments of diffraction may be produced.

Dr Barkla has shown also that they can manifest true polarization.

The secondary rays emitted by a metallic surface when struck by X rays vary, in fact, in intensity when the position of the plane of incidence round the primary pencil is changed.

Various physicists have endeavoured to measure the speed of propagation, but it seems more and more probable that it is very nearly that of light.

[27] [Footnote 27: See especially the experiments of Professor E. Marx (Vienna), _Annalen der Physik_, vol. xx.

(No. 9 of 1906), pp. 677 _et seq.

_, which seem conclusive on this point.

--ED.

] I must here leave out the description of a crowd of other experiments.

Some very interesting researches by M. Brunhes, M. Broca, M. Colardeau, M. Villard, in France, and by many others abroad, have permitted the elucidation of several interesting problems relative to the duration of the emission or to the best disposition to be adopted for the production of the rays.

The only point which will detain us is the important question as to the nature of the X rays themselves; the properties which have just been brought to mind are those which appear essential and which every theory must reckon with.

The most natural hypothesis would be to consider the rays as ultra-violet radiations of very short wave-length, or radiations which are in a manner ultra-ultra-violet.

This interpretation can still, at this present moment, be maintained, and the researches of MM.

Buisson, Righi, Lenard, and Merrit Stewart have even established that rays of very short wave-lengths produce on metallic conductors, from the point of view of electrical phenomena, effects quite analogous to those of the X rays.

Another resemblance results also from the experiments by which M. Perreau established that these rays act on the electric resistance of selenium.

New and valuable arguments have thus added force to those who incline towards a theory which has the merit of bringing a new phenomenon within the pale of phenomena previously known.

Nevertheless the shortest ultra-violet radiations, such as those of M. Schumann, are still capable of refraction by quartz, and this difference constitutes, in the minds of many physicists, a serious enough reason to decide them to reject the more simple hypothesis.

Moreover, the rays of Schumann are, as we have seen, extraordinarily absorbable,--so much so that they have to be observed in a vacuum.

The most striking property of the X rays is, on the contrary, the facility with which they pass through obstacles, and it is impossible not to attach considerable importance to such a difference.

Some attribute this marvellous radiation to longitudinal vibrations, which, as M. Duhem has shown, would be propagated in dielectric media with a speed equal to that of light.

But the most generally accepted idea is the one formulated from the first by Sir George Stokes and followed up by Professor Wiechert.

According to this theory the X rays should be due to a succession of independent pulsations of the ether, starting from the points where the molecules projected by the cathode of the Crookes tube meet the anticathode.

These pulsations are not continuous vibrations like the radiations of the spectrum; they are isolated and extremely short; they are, besides, transverse, like the undulations of light, and the theory shows that they must be propagated with the speed of light.

They should present neither refraction nor reflection, but, under certain conditions, they may be subject to the phenomena of diffraction.

All these characteristics are found in the Röntgen rays.

Professor J. J.

Thomson adopts an analogous idea, and states the precise way in which the pulsations may be produced at the moment when the electrified particles forming the cathode rays suddenly strike the anticathode wall.

The electromagnetic induction behaves in such a way that the magnetic field is not annihilated when the particle stops, and the new field produced, which is no longer in equilibrium, is propagated in the dielectric like an electric pulsation.

The electric and magnetic pulsations excited by this mechanism may give birth to effects similar to those of light.

Their slight amplitude, however, is the cause of there here being neither refraction nor diffraction phenomena, save in very special conditions.

If the cathode particle is not stopped in zero time, the pulsation will take a greater amplitude, and be, in consequence, more easily absorbable; to this is probably to be attributed the differences which may exist between different tubes and different rays.

It is right to add that some authors, notwithstanding the proved impossibility of deviating them in a magnetic field, have not renounced the idea of comparing them with the cathode rays.

They suppose, for instance, that the rays are formed by electrons animated with so great a velocity that their inertia, conformably with theories which I shall examine later, no longer permit them to be stopped in their course; this is, for instance, the theory upheld by Mr Sutherland.

We know, too, that to M. Gustave Le Bon they represent the extreme limit of material things, one of the last stages before the vanishing of matter on its return to the ether.

Everyone has heard of the N rays, whose name recalls the town of Nancy, where they were discovered.

In some of their singular properties they are akin to the X rays, while in others they are widely divergent from them.

M.

Blondlot, one of the masters of contemporary physics, deeply respected by all who know him, admired by everyone for the penetration of his mind, and the author of works remarkable for the originality and sureness of his method, discovered them in radiations emitted from various sources, such as the sun, an incandescent light, a Nernst lamp, and even bodies previously exposed to the sun's rays.

The essential property which allows them to be revealed is their action on a small induction spark, of which they increase the brilliancy; this phenomenon is visible to the eye and is rendered objective by photography.

Various other physicists and numbers of physiologists, following the path opened by M. Blondlot, published during 1903 and 1904 manifold but often rather hasty memoirs, in which they related the results of their researches, which do not appear to have been always conducted with the accuracy desirable.

These results were most strange; they seemed destined to revolutionise whole regions not only of the domain of physics, but likewise of the biological sciences.

Unfortunately the method of observation was always founded on the variations in visibility of the spark or of a phosphorescent substance, and it soon became manifest that these variations were not perceptible to all eyes.

No foreign experimenter has succeeded in repeating the experiments, while in France many physicists have failed; and hence the question has much agitated public opinion.

Are we face to face with a very singular case of suggestion, or is special training and particular dispositions required to make the phenomenon apparent?

It is not possible, at the present moment, to declare the problem solved; but very recent experiments by M. Gutton and a note by M. Mascart have reanimated the confidence of those who hoped that such a scholar as M. Blondlot could not have been deluded by appearances.

However, these last proofs in favour of the existence of the rays have themselves been contested, and have not succeeded in bringing conviction to everyone.

It seems very probable indeed that certain of the most singular conclusions arrived at by certain authors on the subject will lapse into deserved oblivion.

But negative experiments prove nothing in a case like this, and the fact that most experimenters have failed where M.

Blondlot and his pupils have succeeded may constitute a presumption, but cannot be regarded as a demonstrative argument.

Hence we must still wait; it is exceedingly possible that the illustrious physicist of Nancy may succeed in discovering objective actions of the N rays which shall be indisputable, and may thus establish on a firm basis a discovery worthy of those others which have made his name so justly celebrated.

According to M. Blondlot the N rays can be polarised, refracted, and dispersed, while they have wavelengths comprised within .

0030 micron, and .

0760 micron--that is to say, between an eighth and a fifth of that found for the extreme ultra-violet rays.

They might be, perhaps, simply rays of a very short period.

Their existence, stripped of the parasitical and somewhat singular properties sought to be attributed to them, would thus appear natural enough.

It would, moreover, be extremely important, and lead, no doubt, to most curious applications;

it can be conceived, in fact, that such rays might serve to reveal what occurs in those portions of matter whose too minute dimensions escape microscopic examination on account of the phenomena of diffraction.

From whatever point of view we look at it, and whatever may be the fate of the discovery, the history of the N rays is particularly instructive, and must give food for reflection to those interested in questions of scientific methods.

§ 6. THE ETHER AND GRAVITATION

The striking success of the hypothesis of the ether in optics has, in our own days, strengthened the hope of being able to explain, by an analogous representation, the action of gravitation.

For a long time, philosophers who rejected the idea that ponderability is a primary and essential quality of all bodies have sought to reduce their weight to pressures exercised in a very subtle fluid.

This was the conception of Descartes, and was perhaps the true idea of Newton himself.

Newton points out, in many passages, that the laws he had discovered were independent of the hypotheses that could be formed on the way in which universal attraction was produced, but that with sufficient experiments the true cause of this attraction might one day be reached.

In the preface to the second edition of the Optics he writes: "To prove that I have not considered weight as a universal property of bodies, I have added a question as to its cause, preferring this form of question because my interpretation does not entirely satisfy me in the absence of experiment"; and he puts the question in this shape: "Is not this medium (the ether) more rarefied in the interior of dense bodies like the sun, the planets, the comets, than in the empty spaces which separate them?

Passing from these bodies to great distances, does it not become continually denser, and in that way does it not produce the weight of these great bodies with regard to each other and of their parts with regard to these bodies, each body tending to leave the most dense for the most rarefied parts?"

Evidently this view is incomplete, but we may endeavour to state it precisely.

If we admit that this medium, the properties of which would explain the attraction, is the same as the luminous ether, we may first ask ourselves whether the action of gravitation is itself also due to oscillations.

Some authors have endeavoured to found a theory on this hypothesis, but we are immediately brought face to face with very serious difficulties.

Gravity appears, in fact, to present quite exceptional characteristics.

No agent, not even those which depend upon the ether, such as light and electricity, has any influence on its action or its direction.

All bodies are, so to speak, absolutely transparent to universal attraction, and no experiment has succeeded in demonstrating that its propagation is not instantaneous.

From various astronomical observations, Laplace concluded that its velocity, in any case, must exceed fifty million times that of light.

It is subject neither to reflection nor to refraction; it is independent of the structure of bodies; and not only is it inexhaustible, but also (as is pointed out, according to M. Hannequin, by an English scholar, James Croll) the distribution of the effects of the attracting force of a mass over the manifold particles which may successively enter the field of its action in no way diminishes the attraction it exercises on each of them respectively, a thing which is seen nowhere else in nature.

Nevertheless it is possible, by means of certain hypotheses, to construct interpretations whereby the appropriate movements of an elastic medium should explain the facts clearly enough.

But these movements are very complex, and it seems almost inconceivable that the same medium could possess simultaneously the state of movement corresponding to the transmission of a luminous phenomenon and that constantly imposed on it by the transmission of gravitation.

Another celebrated hypothesis was devised by Lesage, of Geneva.

Lesage supposed space to be overrun in all directions by currents of _ultramundane_ corpuscles.

This hypothesis, contested by Maxwell, is interesting.

It might perhaps be taken up again in our days, and it is not impossible that the assimilation of these corpuscles to electrons might give a satisfactory image.

[28] [Footnote 28: M. Sagnac (_Le Radium_, Jan.

1906, p. 14), following perhaps Professors Elster and Geitel, has lately taken up this idea anew.

--ED.

] M.

Crémieux has recently undertaken experiments directed, as he thinks, to showing that the divergences between the phenomena of gravitation and all the other phenomena in nature are more apparent than real.

Thus the evolution in the heart of the ether of a quantity of gravific energy would not be entirely isolated, and as in the case of all evolutions of all energy of whatever kind, it should provoke a partial transformation into energy of a different form.

Thus again the liberated energy of gravitation would vary when passing from one material to another, as from gases into liquids, or from one liquid to a different one.

On this last point the researches of M. Crémieux have given affirmative results: if we immerse in a large mass of some liquid several drops of another not miscible with the first, but of identical density, we form a mass representing no doubt a discontinuity in the ether, and we may ask ourselves whether, in conformity with what happens in all other phenomena of nature, this discontinuity has not a tendency to disappear.

If we abide by the ordinary consequences of the Newtonian theory of potential, the drops should remain motionless, the hydrostatic impulsion forming an exact equilibrium to their mutual attraction.

Now M.

Crémieux remarks that, as a matter of fact, they slowly approach each other.

Such experiments are very delicate; and with all the precautions taken by the author, it cannot yet be asserted that he has removed all possibility of the action of the phenomena of capillarity nor all possible errors proceeding from extremely slight differences of temperature.

But the attempt is interesting and deserves to be followed up.

Thus, the hypothesis of the ether does not yet explain all the phenomena which the considerations relating to matter are of themselves powerless to interpret.

If we wished to represent to ourselves, by the mechanical properties of a medium filling the whole of the universe, all luminous, electric, and gravitation phenomena, we should be led to attribute to this medium very strange and almost contradictory characteristics; and yet it would be still more inconceivable that this medium should be double or treble, that there should be two or three ethers each occupying space as if it were alone, and interpenetrating it without exercising any action on one another.

We are thus brought, by a close examination of facts, rather to the idea that the properties of the ether are not wholly reducible to the rules of ordinary mechanics.

The physicist has therefore not yet succeeded in answering the question often put to him by the philosopher: "Has the ether really an objective existence?"

However, it is not necessary to know the answer in order to utilize the ether.

In its ideal properties we find the means of determining the form of equations which are valid, and to the learned detached from all metaphysical prepossession this is the essential point.

CHAPTER VII A CHAPTER IN THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE: WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY