Elements of Geology — Ch. XXI: The Quaternary, pt 2

PLEISTOCENE LAKES.

Temporary lakes were formed wherever the ice front dammed the natural drainage of the region.

Some, held in the minor valleys crossed by ice lobes, were small, and no doubt many were too short-lived to leave lasting records.

Others, long held against the northward sloping country by the retreating ice edge, left in their beaches their clayey beds, and their outlet channels permanent evidences of their area and depth.

Some of these glacial lakes are thus known to have been larger than any present lake.

Lake Agassiz, named in honor of the author of the theory of continental glaciation, is supposed to have been held by the united front of the Keewatin and the Labrador ice fields as they finally retreated down the valley of the Red River of the North and the drainage basin of Lake Winnipeg.

From first to last Lake Agassiz covered a hundred and ten thousand square miles in Manitoba and the adjacent parts of Minnesota and North Dakota,--an area larger than all the Great Lakes combined.

It discharged its waters across the divide which held it on the south, and thus excavated the valley of the Minnesota River.

The lake bed--a plain of till--was spread smooth and level as a floor with lacustrine silts.

Since Lake Agassiz vanished with the melting back of the ice beyond the outlet by the Nelson River into Hudson Bay, there has gathered on its floor a deep humus, rich in the nitrogenous elements so needful for the growth of plants, and it is to this soil that the region owes its well-known fertility.

THE GREAT LAKES.

The basins of the Great Lakes are broad preglacial river valleys, warped by movements of the crust still in progress, enlarged by the erosive action of lobes of the continental ice sheets, and blockaded by their drift.

The complicated glacial and postglacial history of the lakes is recorded in old strand lines which have been traced at various heights about them, showing their areas and the levels at which their waters stood at different times.

With the retreat of the lobate Wisconsin ice sheet toward the north and east, the southern and western ends of the basins of the Great Lakes were uncovered first; and here, between the receding ice front and the slopes of land which faced it, lakes gathered which increased constantly in size.

The lake which thus came to occupy the western end of the Lake Superior basin discharged over the divide at Duluth down the St. Croix River, as an old outlet channel proves; that which held the southern end of the basin of Lake Michigan sent its overflow across the divide at Chicago via the Illinois River to the Mississippi; the lake which covered the lowlands about the western end of Lake Erie discharged its waters at Fort Wayne into the Wabash River.

The ice still blocked the Mohawk and St. Lawrence valleys on the east, while on the west it had retreated far to the north.

The lakes become confluent in wide expanses of water, whose depths and margins, as shown by their old lake beaches, varied at different times with the position of the confining ice and with warpings of the land.

These vast water bodies, which at one or more periods were greater than all the Great Lakes combined, discharged at various times across the divide at Chicago, near Syracuse, New York, down the Mohawk valley, and by a channel from Georgian Bay into the Ottawa River.

Last of all the present outlet by the St. Lawrence was established.

The beaches of the glacial lakes just mentioned are now far from horizontal.

That of the lake which occupied the Ontario basin has an elevation of three hundred and sixty-two feet above tide at the west and of six hundred and seventy-five feet at the northeast, proving here a differential movement of the land since glacial times amounting to more than three hundred feet.

The beaches which mark the successive heights of these glacial lakes are not parallel; hence the warping began before the Glacial epoch closed.

We have already seen that the canting of the region is still in progress.

THE CHAMPLAIN SUBSIDENCE.

As the Glacial epoch approached its end, and the Labrador ice field melted back for the last time to near its source, the land on which the ice had lain in eastern North America was so depressed that the sea now spread far and wide up the St. Lawrence valley.

It joined with Lake Ontario, and extending down the Champlain and Hudson valleys, made an island of New England and the maritime provinces of Canada.

The proofs of this subsidence are found in old sea beaches and sea-laid clays resting on Wisconsin till.

At Montreal such terraces are found six hundred and twenty feet above sea level, and along Lake Champlain--where the skeleton of a whale was once found among them--at from five hundred to four hundred feet.

The heavy delta which the Mohawk River built at its mouth in this arm of the sea now stands something more than three hundred feet above sea level.

The clays of the Champlain subsidence pass under water near the mouth of the Hudson, and in northern New Jersey they occur two hundred feet below tide.

In these elevations we have measures of the warping of the region since glacial times.

THE WESTERN UNITED STATES IN GLACIAL TIMES.

The western United States was not covered during the Pleistocene by any general ice sheet, but all the high ranges were capped with permanent snow and nourished valley glaciers, often many times the size of the existing glaciers of the Alps.

In almost every valley of the Sierras and the Rockies the records of these vanished ice streams may be found in cirques, glacial troughs, roches moutonnecs, and morainic deposits.

It was during the Glacial epoch that Lakes Bonneville and Lahontan were established in the Great Basin, whose climate must then have been much more moist than now.

THE DRIFTLESS AREA.

In the upper Mississippi valley there is an area of about ten thousand square miles in southwestern Wisconsin and the adjacent parts of Iowa and Minnesota, which escaped the ice invasions.

The rocks are covered with residual clays, the product of long preglacial weathering.

The region is an ancient peneplain, uplifted and dissected in late Tertiary times, with mature valleys whose gentle gradients are unbroken by waterfalls and rapids.

Thus the driftless area is in strong contrast with the immature drift topography about it, where lakes and waterfalls are common.

It is a bit of preglacial landscape, showing the condition of the entire region before the Glacial epoch.

The driftless area lay to one side of the main track of both the Keewatin and the Labrador ice fields, and at the north it was protected by the upland south of Lake Superior, which weakened and retarded the movement of the ice.

South of the driftless area the Mississippi valley was invaded at different times by ice sheets from the west,--the Kansan and the Iowan,--and again by the Illinoian ice sheet from the east.

Again and again the Mississippi River was pushed to one side or the other of its path.

The ancient channel which it held along the Illinoian ice front has been traced through southeastern Iowa for many miles.

BENEFITS OF GLACIATION.

Like the driftless area, the preglacial surface over which the ice advanced seems to have been well dissected after the late Tertiary uplifts, and to have been carved in many places to steep valley slopes and rugged hills.

The retreating ice sheets, which left smooth plains and gently rolling country over the wide belt where glacial deposition exceeded glacial erosion, have made travel and transportation easier than they otherwise would have been.

The preglacial subsoils were residual clays and sands, composed of the insoluble elements of the country rock of the locality, with some minglings of its soluble parts still undissolved.

The glacial subsoils are made of rocks of many kinds, still undecayed and largely ground to powder.

They thus contain an inexhaustible store of the mineral foods of plants, and in a form made easily ready for plant use.

On the preglacial hillsides the humus layer must have been comparatively thin, while the broad glacial plains have gathered deep black soils, rich in carbon and nitrogen taken from the atmosphere.

To these soils and subsoils a large part of the wealth and prosperity of the glaciated regions of our country must be attributed.

The ice invasions have also added very largely to the water power of the country.

The rivers which in preglacial times were flowing over graded courses for the most part, were pushed from their old valleys and set to flow on higher levels, where they have developed waterfalls and rapids.

This power will probably be fully utilized long before the coal beds of the country are exhausted, and will become one of the chief sources of the national wealth.

THE RECENT EPOCH.

The deposits laid since glacial times graduate into those now forming along the ocean shores, on lake beds, and in river valleys.

Slow and comparatively slight changes, such as the warpings of the region of the Great Lakes, have brought about the geographical conditions of the present.

The physical history of the Recent epoch needs here no special mention.

THE LIFE OF THE QUATERNARY

During the entire Quaternary, invertebrates and plants suffered little change in species,--so slowly are these ancient and comparatively simple organisms modified.

The Mammalia, on the other hand, have changed much since the beginning of Quaternary time: the various species of the present have been evolved, and some lines have become extinct.

These highly organized vertebrates are evidently less stable than are lower types of animals, and respond more rapidly to changes in the environment.

PLEISTOCENE MAMMALS.

In the Pleistocene the Mammalia reached their culmination both in size and in variety of forms, and were superior in both these respects to the mammals of to-day.

In Pleistocene times in North America there were several species of bison,--one whose widespreading horns were ten feet from tip to tip,--a gigantic moose elk, a giant rodent (Castoroides) five feet long, several species of musk oxen, several species of horses,-- more akin, however, to zebras than to the modern horse,--a huge lion, several saber-tooth tigers, immense edentates of several genera, and largest of all the mastodon and mammoth.

The largest of the edentates was the Megatherium, a. clumsy ground sloth bigger than a rhinoceros.

The bones of the Megatherium are extraordinarily massive,--the thigh bone being thrice as thick as that of an elephant,--and the animal seems to have been well able to get its living by overthrowing trees and stripping off their leaves.

The Glyptodon was a mailed edentate, eight feet long, resembling the little armadillo.

These edentates survived from Tertiary times, and in the warmer stages of the Pleistocene ranged north as far as Ohio and Oregon.

The great proboscidians of the Glacial epoch were about the size of modern elephants, and somewhat smaller than their ancestral species in the Pliocene.

The MASTODON ranged over all North America south of Hudson Bay, but had become extinct in the Old World at the end of the Tertiary.

The elephants were represented by the MAMMOTH, which roamed in immense herds from our middle states to Alaska, and from Arctic Asia to the Mediterranean and Atlantic.

It is an oft-told story how about a century ago, near the Lena River in Siberia, there was found the body of a mammoth which had been safely preserved in ice for thousands of years, how the flesh was eaten by dogs and bears, and how the eyes and hoofs and portions of the hide were taken with the skeleton to St. Petersburg.

Since then several other carcasses of the mammoth, similarly preserved in ice, have been found in the same region,-- one as recently as 1901. We know from these remains that the animal was clothed in a coat of long, coarse hair, with thick brown fur beneath.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS.

The distribution of species in the Glacial epoch was far different from that of the present.

In the glacial stages arctic species ranged south into what are now temperate latitudes.

The walrus throve along the shores of Virginia and the musk ox grazed in Iowa and Kentucky.

In Europe the reindeer and arctic fox reached the Pyrenees.

During the Champlain depression arctic shells lived along the shore of the arm of the sea which covered the St. Lawrence valley.

In interglacial times of milder climate the arctic fauna-flora retreated, and their places were taken by plants and animals from the south.

Peccaries, now found in Texas, ranged into Michigan and New York, while great sloths from South America reached the middle states.

Interglacial beds at Toronto, Canada, contain remains of forests of maple, elm, and papaw, with mollusks now living in the Mississippi basin.

What changes in the forests of your region would be brought about, and in what way, if the climate should very gradually grow colder?

What changes if it should grow warmer?

On the Alps and the highest summits of the White Mountains of New England are found colonies of arctic species of plants and insects.

How did they come to be thus separated from their home beyond the arctic circle by a thousand miles and more of temperate climate impossible to cross?

MAN.

Along with the remains of the characteristic animals of the time which are now extinct there have been found in deposits of the Glacial epoch in the Old World relics of Pleistocene MAN, his bones, and articles of his manufacture.

In Europe, where they have best been studied, human relics occur chiefly in peat bogs, in loess, in caverns where man made his home, and in high river terraces sometimes eighty and a hundred feet above the present flood plains of the streams.

In order to understand the development of early man, we should know that prehistoric peoples are ranked according to the materials of which their tools were made and the skill shown in their manufacture.

There are thus four well-marked stages of human culture preceding the written annals of history: 4 The Iron stage.

3 The Bronze stage.

2 The Neolithic (recent stone) stage.

1 The Paleolithic (ancient stone) stage.

In the Neolithic stage the use of the metals had not yet been learned, but tools of stone were carefully shaped and polished.

To this stage the North American Indian belonged at the time of the discovery of the continent.

In the Paleolithic stage, stone implements were chipped to rude shapes and left unpolished.

This, the lowest state of human culture, has been outgrown by nearly every savage tribe now on earth.

A still earlier stage may once have existed, when man had not learned so much as to shape his weapons to his needs, but used chance pebbles and rock splinters in their natural forms; of such a stage, however, we have no evidence.

PALEOLITHIC MAN IN EUROPE.

It was to the Paleolithic stage that the earliest men belonged whose relics are found in Europe.

They had learned to knock off two-edged flakes from flint pebbles, and to work them into simple weapons.

The great discovery had been made that fire could be kindled and made use of, as the charcoal and the stones discolored by heat of their ancient hearths attest.

Caves and shelters beneath overhanging cliffs were their homes or camping places.

Paleolithic man was a savage of the lowest type, who lived by hunting the wild beasts of the time.

Skeletons found in certain caves in Belgium and France represent perhaps the earliest race yet found in Europe.

These short, broad- shouldered men, muscular, with bent knees and stooping gait, low- browed and small of brain, were of little intelligence and yet truly human.

The remains of Pleistocene man are naturally found either in caverns, where they escaped destruction by the ice sheets, or in deposits outside the glaciated area.

In both cases it is extremely difficult, or quite impossible, to assign the remains to definite glacial or interglacial times.

Their relative age is best told by the fauna with which they are associated.

Thus the oldest relics of man are found with the animals of the late Tertiary or early Quaternary, such as a species of hippopotamus and an elephant more ancient than the mammoth.

Later in age are the remains found along with the mammoth, cave bear and cave hyena, and other animals of glacial time which are now extinct; while more recent still are those associated with the reindeer, which in the last ice invasion roamed widely with the mammoth over central Europe.

THE CAVES OF SOUTHERN FRANCE.

These contain the fullest records of the race, much like the Eskimos in bodily frame, which lived in western Europe at the time of the mammoth and the reindeer.

The floors of these caves are covered with a layer of bone fragments, the remains of many meals, and here are found also various articles of handicraft.

In this way we know that the savages who made these caves their homes fished with harpoons of bone, and hunted with spears and darts tipped with flint and horn.

The larger bones are split for the extraction of the marrow.

Among such fragments no split human bones are found; this people, therefore, were not cannibals.

Bone needles imply the art of sewing, and therefore the use of clothing, made no doubt of skins;

while various ornaments, such as necklaces of shells, show how ancient is the love of personal adornment.

Pottery was not yet invented.

There is no sign of agriculture.

No animals had yet been domesticated; not even man's earliest friend, the dog.

Certain implements, perhaps used as the insignia of office, suggest a rude tribal organization and the beginnings of the state.

The remains of funeral feasts in front of caverns used as tombs point to a religion and the belief in a life beyond the grave.

In the caverns of southern France are found also the beginnings of the arts of painting and of sculpture.

With surprising skill these Paleolithic men sketched on bits of ivory the mammoth with his long hair and huge curved tusks, frescoed their cavern walls with pictures of the bison and other animals, and carved reindeer on their dagger heads.

EARLY MAN ON OTHER CONTINENTS.

Paleolithic flints curiously like those of western Europe are found also in many regions of the Old World,--in India, Egypt, and Asia Minor,--beneath the earliest vestiges of the civilization of those ancient seats, and sometimes associated with the fauna of the Glacial epoch.

In Java there were found in 1891, in strata early Quaternary or late Pliocene in age, parts of a skeleton of lower grade, if not of greater antiquity, than any human remains now known.

Pithecanthropus erectus, as the creature has been named, walked erect, as its thigh bone shows, but the skull and teeth indicate a close affinity with the ape.

In North America there have been reported many finds of human relics in valley trains, loess, old river gravels buried beneath lava flows, and other deposits of supposed glacial age; but in the opinion of some geologists sufficient proof of the existence of man in America in glacial times has not as yet been found.

These finds in North America have been discredited for various reasons.

Some were not made by scientific men accustomed to the closest scrutiny of every detail.

Some were reported after a number of years, when the circumstances might not be accurately remembered; while in a number of instances it seems possible that the relics might have been worked into glacial deposits by natural causes from the surface.

Man, we may believe, witnessed the great ice fields of Europe, if not of America, and perhaps appeared on earth under the genial climate of preglacial times.

Nothing has yet been found of the line of man's supposed descent from the primates of the early Tertiary, with the possible exception of the Java remains just mentioned.

The structures of man's body show that he is not descended from any of the existing genera of apes.

And although he may not have been exempt from the law of evolution,--that method of creation which has made all life on earth akin,--yet his appearance was an event which in importance ranks with the advent of life upon the planet, and marks a new manifestation of creative energy upon a higher plane.

There now appeared intelligence, reason, a moral nature, and a capacity for self-directed progress such as had never been before on earth.

THE RECENT EPOCH.

The Glacial epoch ends with the melting of the ice sheets of North America and Europe, and the replacement of the Pleistocene mammalian fauna by present species.

How gradually the one epoch shades into the other is seen in the fact that the glaciers which still linger in Norway and Alaska are the lineal descendants or the renewed appearances of the ice fields of glacial times.

Our science cannot foretell whether all traces of the Great Ice Age are to disappear, and the earth is to enjoy again the genial climate of the Tertiary, or whether the present is an interglacial epoch and the northern lands are comparatively soon again to be wrapped in ice.

NEOLITHIC MAN.

The wild Paleolithic men vanished from Europe with the wild beasts which they hunted, and their place was taken by tribes, perhaps from Asia, of a higher culture.

The remains of Neolithic man are found, much as are those of the North American Indians, upon or near the surface, in burial mounds, in shell heaps (the refuse heaps of their settlements), in peat bogs, caves, recent flood-plain deposits, and in the beds of lakes near shore where they sometimes built their dwellings upon piles.

The successive stages in European culture are well displayed in the peat bogs of Denmark.

The lowest layers contain the polished STONE implements of Neolithic man, along with remains of the SCOTCH FIR.

Above are OAK trunks with implements of BRONZE, while the higher layers hold iron weapons and the remains of a BEECH forest.

Neolithic man in Europe had learned to make pottery, to spin and weave linen, to hew timbers and build boats, and to grow wheat and barley.

The dog, horse, ox, sheep, goat, and hog had been domesticated, and, as these species are not known to have existed before in Europe, it is a fair inference that they were brought by man from another continent of the Old World.

Neolithic man knew nothing of the art of extracting the metals from their ores, nor had he a written language.

The Neolithic stage of culture passes by insensible gradations into that of the age of bronze, and thus into the Recent epoch.

In the Recent epoch the progress of man in language, in social organization, in the arts of life, in morals and religion, has left ample records which are for other sciences than ours to read;

here, therefore, geology gives place to archaeology and history.

Our brief study of the outlines of geology has given us, it is hoped, some great and lasting good.

To conceive a past so different from the present has stimulated the imagination, and to follow the inferences by which the conclusions of our science have been reached has exercised one of the noblest faculties of the mind,--the reason.

We have learned to look on nature in new ways: every landscape, every pebble now has a meaning and tells something of its origin and history, while plants and animals have a closer interest since we have traced the long lines of their descent.

The narrow horizons of human life have been broken through, and we have caught glimpses of that immeasurable reach of time in which nebulae and suns and planets run their courses.

Moreover, we have learned something of that orderly and world- embracing progress by which the once uninhabitable globe has come to be man's well-appointed home, and life appearing in the lowliest forms has steadily developed higher and still higher types.

Seeing this process enter human history and lift our race continually to loftier levels, we find reason to believe that the onward, upward movement of the geological past is the manifestation of the same wise Power which makes for righteousness and good and that this unceasing purpose will still lead on to nobler ends.

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