Myths of Babylonia and Assyria — 16 - Chapter 13: Astrology and Astronomy (Part 2)

The Babylonian Creation myth states that Merodach, having fixed the stars of the Zodiac, made three stars for each month (p. 147).

Mr. Robert Brown, jun.

, who has dealt as exhaustively with the astronomical problems of Babylonia as the available data permitted him, is of opinion that the leading stars of three constellations are referred to, viz.

: (1) the central or zodiacal constellations, (2) the northern constellations, and (3) the southern constellations.

We have thus a scheme of thirty-six constellations.

The "twelve zodiacal stars were flanked on either side by twelve non-zodiacal stars".

Mr. Brown quotes Diodorus, who gave a résumé of Babylonian astronomico-astrology, in this connection.

He said that "the five planets were called 'Interpreters'; and in subjection to these were marshalled 'Thirty Stars', which were styled 'Divinities of the Council'....

The chiefs of the Divinities are twelve in number, to each of whom they assign a month and one of the twelve signs of the Zodiac."

Through these twelve signs sun, moon, and planets run their courses.

"And with the zodiacal circle they mark out twenty-four stars, half of which they say are arranged in the north and half in the south."

[328] Mr. Brown shows that the thirty stars referred to "constituted the original Euphratean Lunar Zodiac, the parent of the seven ancient lunar zodiacs which have come down to us, namely, the Persian, Sogdian, Khorasmian, Chinese, Indian, Arab, and Coptic schemes".

The three constellations associated with each month had each a symbolic significance: they reflected the characters of their months.

At the height of the rainy season, for instance, the month of Ramman, the thunder god, was presided over by the zodiacal constellation of the water urn, the northern constellation "Fish of the Canal", and the southern "the Horse".

In India the black horse was sacrificed at rain-getting and fertility ceremonies.

The months of growth, pestilence, and scorching sun heat were in turn symbolized.

The "Great Bear" was the "chariot" = "Charles's Wain", and the "Milky Way" the "river of the high cloud", the Celestial Euphrates, as in Egypt it was the Celestial Nile.

Of special interest among the many problems presented by Babylonian astronomical lore is the theory of Cosmic periods or Ages of the Universe.

In the Indian, Greek, and Irish mythologies there are four Ages--the Silvern (white), Golden (yellow), the Bronze (red), and the Iron (black).

As has been already indicated, Mr. R.

Brown, jun.

, shows that "the Indian system of Yugas, or ages of the world, presents many features which forcibly remind us of the Euphratean scheme".

The Babylonians had ten antediluvian kings, who were reputed to have reigned for vast periods, the total of which amounted to 120 saroi, or 432,000 years.

These figures at once recall the Indian Maha-yuga of 4,320,000 years = 432,000 x 10. Apparently the Babylonian and Indian systems of calculation were of common origin.

In both countries the measurements of time and space were arrived at by utilizing the numerals 10 and 6. When primitive man began to count he adopted a method which comes naturally to every schoolboy; he utilized his fingers.

Twice five gave him ten, and from ten he progressed to twenty, and then on to a hundred and beyond.

In making measurements his hands, arms, and feet were at his service.

We are still measuring by feet and yards (standardized strides) in this country, while those who engage in the immemorial art of knitting, and, in doing so, repeat designs found on neolithic pottery, continue to measure in finger breadths, finger lengths, and hand breadths as did the ancient folks who called an arm length a cubit.

Nor has the span been forgotten, especially by boys in their games with marbles; the space from the end of the thumb to the end of the little finger when the hand is extended must have been an important measurement from the earliest times.

As he made progress in calculations, the primitive Babylonian appears to have been struck by other details in his anatomy besides his sets of five fingers and five toes.

He observed, for instance, that his fingers were divided into three parts and his thumb into two parts only;[329] four fingers multiplied by three gave him twelve, and multiplying 12 by 3 he reached 36. Apparently the figure 6 attracted him.

His body was divided into 6 parts--2 arms, 2 legs, the head, and the trunk; his 2 ears, 2 eyes, and mouth, and nose also gave him 6. The basal 6, multiplied by his 10 fingers, gave him 60, and 60 x 2 (for his 2 hands) gave him 120. In Babylonian arithmetic 6 and 60 are important numbers, and it is not surprising to find that in the system of numerals the signs for 1 and 10 combined represent 60. In fixing the length of a mythical period his first great calculation of 120 came naturally to the Babylonian, and when he undertook to measure the Zodiac he equated time and space by fixing on 120 degrees.

His first zodiac was the Sumerian lunar zodiac, which contained thirty moon chambers associated with the "Thirty Stars" of the tablets, and referred to by Diodorus as "Divinities of the Council".

The chiefs of the Thirty numbered twelve.

In this system the year began in the winter solstice.

Mr. Hewitt has shown that the chief annual festival of the Indian Dravidians begins with the first full moon after the winter festival, and Mr. Brown emphasizes the fact that the list of Tamil (Dravidian) lunar and solar months are named like the Babylonian constellations.

[330] "Lunar chronology", wrote Professor Max Mailer, "seems everywhere to have preceded solar chronology."

[331] The later Semitic Babylonian system had twelve solar chambers and the thirty-six constellations.

Each degree was divided into sixty minutes, and each minute into sixty seconds.

The hours of the day and night each numbered twelve.

Multiplying 6 by 10 (pur), the Babylonian arrived at 60 (soss); 60x10 gave him 600 (ner), and 600x6, 3600 (sar), while 3600x10 gave him 36,000, and 36,000x12, 432,000 years, or 120 saroi, which is equal to the "sar" multiplied by the "soss"x2.

"Pur" signifies "heap"--the ten fingers closed after being counted; and "ner" signifies "foot".

Mr. George Bertin suggests that when 6x10 fingers gave 60 this number was multiplied by the ten toes, with the result that 600 was afterwards associated with the feet (ner).

The Babylonian sign for 10 resembles the impression of two feet with heels closed and toes apart.

This suggests a primitive record of the first round of finger counting.

In India this Babylonian system of calculation was developed during the Brahmanical period.

The four Yugas or Ages, representing the four fingers used by the primitive mathematicians, totalled 12,000 divine years, a period which was called a Maha-yuga; it equalled the Babylonian 120 saroi, multiplied by 100. Ten times a hundred of these periods gave a "Day of Brahma".

Each day of the gods, it was explained by the Brahmans, was a year to mortals.

Multiplied by 360 days, 12,000 divine years equalled 4,320,000 human years.

This Maha-yuga, multiplied by 1000, gave the "Day of Brahma" as 4,320,000,000 human years.

The shortest Indian Yuga is the Babylonian 120 saroi multiplied by 10=1200 divine years for the Kali Yuga; twice that number gives the Dvapara Yuga of 2400 divine years; then the Treta Yuga is 2400 + 1200 = 3600 divine years, and Krita Yuga 3600 + 1200 = 4800 divine years.

The influence of Babylonia is apparent in these calculations.

During the Vedic period "Yuga" usually signified a "generation", and there are no certain references to the four Ages as such.

The names "Kali", "Dvapara", "Treta", and "Krita" "occur as the designations of throws of dice".

[332] It was after the arrival of the "late comers", the post-Vedic Aryans, that the Yuga system was developed in India.

[333] In _Indian Myth and Legend[334] it is shown that the Indian and Irish Ages have the same colour sequence: (1) White or Silvern, (2) Red or Bronze, (3) Yellow or Golden, and (4) Black or Iron.

The Greek order is: (1) Golden, (2) Silvern, (3) Bronze, and (4) Iron.

The Babylonians coloured the seven planets as follows: the moon, silvern; the sun, golden; Mars, red; Saturn, black; Jupiter, orange;

Venus, yellow; and Mercury, blue.

As the ten antediluvian kings who reigned for 120 saroi had an astral significance, their long reigns corresponding "with the distances separating certain of the principal stars in or near the ecliptic",[335] it seems highly probable that the planets were similarly connected with mythical ages which were equated with the "four quarters" of the celestial regions and the four regions of the earth, which in Gaelic story are called "the four red divisions of the world".

Three of the planets may have been heralds of change.

Venus, as "Dilbat", was the "Proclaimer", and both Jupiter and Mercury were called "Face voices of light", and "Heroes of the rising sun" among other names.

Jupiter may have been the herald of the "Golden Age" as a morning star.

This planet was also associated with bronze, as "Kakkub Urud", "the star of bronze", while Mars was "Kakkub Aban Kha-urud," "the star of the bronze fish stone".

Mercury, the lapis lazuli planet, may have been connected with the black Saturn, the ghost of the dead sun, the demoniac elder god; in Egypt lapis lazuli was the hair colour of Ra when he grew old, and Egyptologists translate it as black.

[336] The rare and regular appearances of Mercury may have suggested the planet's connection with a recurring Age.

Venus as an evening star might be regarded as the herald of the lunar or silver age; she was propitious as a bearded deity and interchanged with Merodach as a seasonal herald.

Connecting Jupiter with the sun as a propitious planet, and with Mars as a destroying planet, Venus with the moon, and Mercury with Saturn, we have left four colour schemes which suggest the Golden, Silvern, Bronze, and Iron Ages.

The Greek order of mythical ages may have had a solar significance, beginning as it does with the "golden" period.

On the other hand the Indian and Irish systems begin with the Silvern or white lunar period.

In India the White Age (Treta Yuga) was the age of perfect men, and in Greece the Golden Age was the age of men who lived like gods.

Thus the first ages in both cases were "Perfect" Ages.

The Bronze Age of Greece was the age of notorious fighters and takers of life; in Babylonia the bronze planet Mars was the symbol of the destroying Nergal, god of war and pestilence, while Jupiter was also a destroyer as Merodach, the slayer of Tiamat.

In India the Black Age is the age of wickedness.

The Babylonian Saturn, as we have seen, is black, and its god, Ninip, was the destroying boar, which recalls the black boar of the Egyptian demon (or elder god) Set.

The Greek Cronos was a destroyer even of his own children.

All the elder gods had demoniac traits like the ghosts of human beings.

As the Babylonian lunar zodiac was imported into India before solar worship and the solar zodiac were developed, so too may have been the germs of the Yuga doctrine, which appears to have a long history.

Greece, on the other hand, came under the influence of Babylon at a much later period.

In Egypt Ra, the sun god, was an antediluvian king, and he was followed by Osiris.

Osiris was slain by Set, who was depicted sometimes red and sometimes black.

There was also a Horus Age.

The Irish system of ages suggests an early cultural drift into Europe, through Asia Minor, and along the uplands occupied by the representatives of the Alpine or Armenoid peoples who have been traced from Hindu Kush to Brittany.

The culture of Gaul resembles that of India in certain particulars; both the Gauls and the post-Vedic Aryans, for instance, believed in the doctrine of Transmigration of Souls, and practised "suttee".

After the Roman occupation of Gaul, Ireland appears to have been the refuge of Gaulish scholars, who imported their beliefs and traditions and laid the foundations of that brilliant culture which shed lustre on the Green Isle in late Pagan and early Christian times.

The part played by the Mitanni people of Aryan speech in distributing Asiatic culture throughout Europe may have been considerable, but we know little or nothing regarding their movements and influence, nor has sufficient evidence been forthcoming to connect them with the cremating invaders of the Bronze Age, who penetrated as far as northern Scotland and Scandinavia.

On the other hand it is certain that the Hittites adopted the planetary system of Babylonia and passed it on to Europeans, including the Greeks.

The five planets Ninip, Merodach, Nergal, Ishtar, and Nebo were called by the Greeks after their gods Kronos, Zeus, Ares, Aphrodite, and Hermes, and by the Romans Saturnus, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and Mercurius.

It must be recognized, however, that these equations were somewhat arbitrary.

Ninip resembled Kronos and Saturnus as a father, but he was also at the same time a son; he was the Egyptian Horus the elder and Horus the younger in one.

Merodach was similarly of complex character--a combination of Ea, Anu, Enlil, and Tammuz, who acquired, when exalted by the Amoritic Dynasty of Babylon, the attributes of the thunder god Adad-Ramman in the form of Amurru, "lord of the mountains".

During the Hammurabi Age Amurru was significantly popular in personal names.

It is as Amurru-Ramman that Merodach bears comparison with Zeus.

He also links with Hercules.

Too much must not be made, therefore, of the Greek and Roman identifications of alien deities with their own.

Mulla, the Gaulish mule god, may have resembled Mars somewhat, but it is a "far cry" from Mars-Mulla to Mars-Nergal, as it is also from the Gaulish Moccus, the boar, called "Mercury", to Nebo, the god of culture, who was the "Mercury" of the Tigro-Euphrates valley.

Similarly the differences between "Jupiter-Amon" of Egypt and "Jupiter-Merodach" of Babylon were more pronounced than the resemblances.

The basal idea in Babylonian astrology appears to be the recognition of the astral bodies as spirits or fates, who exercised an influence over the gods, the world, and mankind.

These were worshipped in groups when they were yet nameless.

The group addressed, "Powerful, O sevenfold, one are ye", may have been a constellation consisting of seven stars.

[337] The worship of stars and planets, which were identified and named, "seems never to have spread", says Professor Sayce, "beyond the learned classes, and to have remained to the last an artificial system.

The mass of the people worshipped the stars as a whole, but it was only as a whole and not individually."

[338] The masses perpetuated ancient animistic beliefs, like the pre-Hellenic inhabitants of Greece.

"The Pelasgians, as I was informed at Dodona," wrote Herodotus, "formerly offered all things indiscriminately to the gods.

They distinguished them by no name or surname, for they were hitherto unacquainted with either; but they called them gods, which by its etymology means disposers, from observing the orderly disposition and distribution of the various parts of the universe."

[339] The oldest deities are those which bore no individual names.

They were simply "Fates" or groups called "Sevenfold".

The crude giant gods of Scotland are "Fomhairean" (Fomorians), and do not have individual names as in Ireland.

Families and tribes were controlled by the Fates or nameless gods, which might appear as beasts or birds, or be heard knocking or screaming.

In the Babylonian astral hymns, the star spirits are associated with the gods, and are revealers of the decrees of Fate.

"Ye brilliant stars...

ye bright ones...

to destroy evil did Anu create you....

At thy command mankind was named (created)!

Give thou the Word, and with thee let the great gods stand!

Give thou my judgment, make my decision!"

[340] The Indian evidence shows that the constellations, and especially the bright stars, were identified before the planets.

Indeed, in Vedic literature there is no certain reference to a single planet, although constellations are named.

It seems highly probable that before the Babylonian gods were associated with the astral bodies, the belief obtained that the stars exercised an influence over human lives.

In one of the Indian "Forest Books", for instance, reference is made to a man who was "born under the Nakshatra Rohini ".

[341] "Nakshatras" are stars in the _Rigveda_ and later, and "lunar mansions" in Brahmanical compositions.

[342] "Rohini, 'ruddy', is the name of a conspicuously reddish star, ɑ Tauri or Aldebaran, and denotes the group of the Hyades."

[343] This reference may be dated before 600 B. C.

, perhaps 800 B.

C.

From Greece comes the evidence of Plutarch regarding the principles of Babylonian astrology.

"Respecting the planets, which they call _the birth-ruling divinities_, the Chaldeans", he wrote, "lay down that two (Venus and Jupiter) are propitious, and two (Mars and Saturn) malign, and three (Sun, Moon, and Mercury) of a middle nature, and one common."

"That is," Mr. Brown comments, "an astrologer would say, these three are propitious with the good, and may be malign with the bad."

[344] Jastrow's views in this connection seem highly controversial.

He holds that Babylonian astrology dealt simply with national affairs, and had no concern with "the conditions under which the individual was born";

it did not predict "the fate in store for him".

He believes that the Greeks transformed Babylonian astrology and infused it with the spirit of individualism which is a characteristic of their religion, and that they were the first to give astrology a personal significance.

Jastrow also perpetuates the idea that astronomy began with the Greeks.

"Several centuries before the days of Alexander the Great," he says, "the Greeks had begun to cultivate the study of the heavens, not for purposes of divination, but prompted by a scientific spirit as an intellectual discipline that might help them to solve the mysteries of the universe."

It is possible, however, to overrate the "scientific spirit" of the Greeks, who, like the Japanese in our own day, were accomplished borrowers from other civilizations.

That astronomy had humble beginnings in Greece as elsewhere is highly probable.

The late Mr. Andrew Lang wrote in this connection: "The very oddest example of the survival of the notion that the stars are men and women is found in the _Pax_ of Aristophanes.

Trygaeus in that comedy has just made an expedition to heaven.

A slave meets him, and asks him: 'Is not the story true, then, that we become stars when we die?'

The answer is, 'Certainly'; and Trygaeus points out the star into which Ion of Chios has just been metamorphosed."

Mr. Lang added: "Aristophanes is making fun of some popular Greek superstition".

The Eskimos, Persians, Aryo-Indians, Germans, New Zealanders, and others had a similar superstition.

[345] Jastrow goes on to say that the Greeks "imparted their scientific view of the Universe to the East.

They became the teachers of the East in astronomy as in medicine and other sciences, and the credit of having discovered the law of the precession of the equinoxes belongs to Hipparchus, the Greek astronomer, who announced this important theory about the year 130 B. C."

[346] Undoubtedly the Greeks contributed to the advancement of the science of astronomy, with which, as other authorities believe, they became acquainted after it had become well developed as a science by the Assyrians and Babylonians.

"In return for improved methods of astronomical calculation which," Jastrow says, "_it may be assumed_ (the italics are ours), contact with Greek science gave to the Babylonian astronomers, the Greeks accepted from the Babylonians the names of the constellations of the ecliptic."

[347] This is a grudging admission; they evidently accepted more than the mere names.

Jastrow's hypothesis is certainly interesting, especially as he is an Oriental linguist of high repute.

But it is not generally accepted.

The sudden advance made by the Tigro-Euphratean astronomers when Assyria was at the height of its glory, may have been due to the discoveries made by great native scientists, the Newtons and the Herschels of past ages, who had studied the data accumulated by generations of astrologers, the earliest recorders of the movements of the heavenly bodies.

It is hard to believe that the Greeks made much progress as scientists before they had identified the planets, and become familiar with the Babylonian constellations through the medium of the Hittites or the Phoenicians.

What is known for certain is that long centuries before the Greek science was heard of, there were scientists in Babylonia.

During the Sumerian period "the forms and relations of geometry", says Professor Goodspeed, "were employed for purposes of augury.

The heavens were mapped out, and the courses of the heavenly bodies traced to determine the bearing of their movements upon human destinies."

[348] Several centuries before Hipparchus was born, the Assyrian kings had in their palaces official astronomers who were able to foretell, with varying degrees of accuracy, when eclipses would take place.

Instructions were sent to various observatories, in the king's name, to send in reports of forthcoming eclipses.

A translation of one of these official documents sent from the observatory of Babylon to Nineveh, has been published by Professor Harper.

The following are extracts from it: "As for the eclipse of the moon about which the king my lord has written to me, a watch was kept for it in the cities of Akkad, Borsippa, and Nippur.

We observed it ourselves in the city of Akkad....

And whereas the king my lord ordered me to observe also the eclipse of the sun, I watched to see whether it took place or not, and what passed before my eyes I now report to the king my lord.

It was an eclipse of the moon that took place....

It was total over Syria, and the shadow fell on the land of the Amorites, the land of the Hittites, and in part on the land of the Chaldees."

Professor Sayce comments: "We gather from this letter that there were no less than three observatories in Northern Babylonia: one at Akkad, near Sippara; one at Nippur, now Niffer; and one at Borsippa, within sight of Babylon.

As Borsippa possessed a university, it was natural that one of the three observatories should be established there."

[349] It is evident that before the astronomers at Nineveh could foretell eclipses, they had achieved considerable progress as scientists.

The data at their disposal probably covered nearly two thousand years.

Mr. Brown, junior, calculates that the signs of the Zodiac were fixed in the year 2084 B. C.

[350] These star groups do not now occupy the positions in which they were observed by the early astronomers, because the revolving earth is rocking like a top, with the result that the pole does not always keep pointing at the same spot in the heavens.

Each year the meeting-place of the imaginary lines of the ecliptic and equator is moving westward at the rate of about fifty seconds.

In time--ages hence--the pole will circle round to the point it spun at when the constellations were named by the Babylonians.

It is by calculating the period occupied by this world-curve that the date 2084 B. C.

has been arrived at.

As a result of the world-rocking process, the present-day "signs of the Zodiac" do not correspond with the constellations.

In March, for instance, when the sun crosses the equator it enters the sign of the Ram (Aries), but does not reach the constellation till the 20th, as the comparative table shows on p. 308. When "the ecliptic was marked off into the twelve regions" and the signs of the Zodiac were designated, "the year of three hundred sixty-five and one-fourth days was known", says Goodspeed, "though the common year was reckoned according to twelve months of thirty days each[351], and equated with the solar year by intercalating a month at the proper times....

The month was divided into weeks of seven days....

The clepsydra and the sundial were Babylonian inventions for measuring time."

[352] The sundial of Ahaz was probably of Babylonian design.

When the shadow went "ten degrees backward" (_2 Kings_, xx, II) ambassadors were sent from Babylon "to enquire of the wonder that was done in the land" (_2 Chron.

_ xxxii, 31).

It was believed that the king's illness was connected with the incident.

According to astronomical calculation there was a partial eclipse of the sun which was visible at Jerusalem on 11th January, 689 B. C, about 11. 30 a. m.

When the upper part of the solar disc was obscured, the shadow on the dial was strangely affected.

The Babylonian astrologers in their official documents were more concerned regarding international omens than those which affected individuals.

They made observations not only of the stars, but also the moon, which, as has been shown, was one of their planets, and took note of the clouds and the wind likewise.

As portions of the heavens were assigned to various countries, so was the moon divided into four quarters for the same purpose--the upper part for the north, Gutium, the lower for the south, Akkad or Babylonia, the eastern part for Elam, and the western for Amurru.

The crescent was also divided in like manner; looking southward the astrologers assigned the right horn to the west and the left to the east.

In addition, certain days and certain months were connected with the different regions.

Lunar astrology was therefore of complicated character.

When the moon was dim at the particular phase which was connected with Amurru, it was believed that the fortunes of that region were in decline, and if it happened to shine brightly in the Babylonian phase the time was considered auspicious to wage war in the west.

Great importance was attached to eclipses, which were fortunately recorded, with the result that the ancient astronomers were ultimately enabled to forecast them.

The destinies of the various states in the four quarters were similarly influenced by the planets.

When Venus, for instance, rose brightly in the field of Anu, it was a "prosperor" for Elam; if it were dim it foretold misfortune.

Much importance was also attached to the positions occupied by the constellations when the planets were propitious or otherwise; no king would venture forth on an expedition under a "yoke of inauspicious stars".

Biblical references to the stars make mention of well-known Babylonian constellations: Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion?

Canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth (?

the Zodiac) in his season?

or canst thou guide Arcturus with his sons?

Knowest thou the ordinances of heaven?

canst thou set the dominion thereof in the earth?

_Job_, xxxviii, 31-33. Which maketh Arcturus, Orion, and Pleiades, and the chambers of the south.

_Job_, ix, 9. Seek him that maketh the seven stars and Orion, and turneth the shadow of death into the morning, and maketh the day dark with night.

_Amos_, v, 8. The so-called science of astrology, which had origin in ancient Babylonia and spread eastward and west, is not yet extinct, and has its believers even in our own country at the present day, although they are not nearly so numerous as when Shakespeare made Malvolio read: In my stars I am above thee; but be not afraid of greatness: some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon 'em.

Thy Fates open their hands....

[353] or when Byron wrote: Ye stars!

which are the poetry of heaven!

If in your bright leaves we would read the fate Of men and empires--'t is to be forgiven That in our aspirations to be great, Our destinies o'erleap their mortal state And claim a kindred with you....

[354] Our grave astronomers are no longer astrologers, but they still call certain constellations by the names given them in Babylonia.

Every time we look at our watches we are reminded of the ancient mathematicians who counted on their fingers and multiplied 10 by 6, to give us minutes and seconds, and divided the day and the night into twelve hours by multiplying six by the two leaden feet of Time.

The past lives in the present.

CHAPTER XIV. ASHUR THE NATIONAL GOD OF ASSYRIA

Derivation of Ashur--Ashur as Anshar and Anu--Animal forms of Sky God--Anshar as Star God on the Celestial Mount--Isaiah's Parable--Symbols of World God and World Hill--Dance of the Constellations and Dance of Satyrs--Goat Gods and Bull Gods--Symbols of Gods as "High Heads"--The Winged Disc--Human Figure as Soul of the Sun--Ashur as Hercules and Gilgamesh--Gods differentiated by Cults--Fertility Gods as War Gods--Ashur's Tree and Animal forms--Ashur as Nisroch--Lightning Symbol in Disc--Ezekiel's Reference to Life Wheel--Indian Wheel and Discus--Wheels of Shamash and Ahura-Mazda--Hittite Winged Disc--Solar Wheel causes Seasonal Changes--Bonfires to stimulate Solar Deity--Burning of Gods and Kings--Magical Ring and other Symbols of Scotland--Ashur's Wheel of Life and Eagle Wings--King and Ashur--Ashur associated with Lunar, Fire, and Star Gods--The Osirian Clue--Hittite and Persian Influences.