Popular History of the Art of Music — 39 - LATER COMPOSERS AND PERFORMERS.

CHAPTER XXXIX. LATER COMPOSERS AND PERFORMERS.

Before summing up the remaining names of musical history, a brief retrospect over the present century may be in place.

The first quarter of the nineteenth century was distinguished by two composers of the first order--Beethoven and Schubert; and by a large number of highly gifted lesser artists, some of whom, such as Spohr and Weber, bid fair to remain long enrolled in the list of immortals.

The second quarter of the century was made memorable by the rise and blossoming into full glory of the romantic school, all the works of this school (excepting a few of the earlier of Mendelssohn) having been produced during this period.

Mendelssohn, Schumann, Chopin and the young Wagner were the active spirits of this time, and their productions not only enriched the store of the world's tone poetry, but changed the general direction of musical ideals in many ways.

The great feature of the third quarter of the century was the conception and execution of the Wagnerian music-drama, with its wealth of sense incitation and its somber appeal to accumulated experiences of the race.

The "Ring of the Nibelungen" was completed during this period and received its first performance at Bayreuth in 1876. During the same period Franz Liszt had conceived a modification of the symphony form, bringing its four movements into a single one, or uniting the different movements (if such there were) by means of motives common to all or several of them.

In this way a certain novelty was attainable in the most important province of instrumental music; and while the new compositions generally acknowledged their indebtedness to external incitation by titles, such as: "What One Sees from a Mountain," the "Battle of the Huns," "Romeo and Juliette," and the like, there was nothing to prevent them being in the fullest sense musical works, having a musical life as such wholly independent of the suggestion given by the title.

Berlioz had been the founder of programme music, and his leading works had been produced during the second quarter of the century, but their full force was not recognized until later.

It was a follower of Liszt, the brilliant Frenchman, Camille Saint-Saëns, who stated the central thesis of the whole romantic school, when he said that a composer had the same right to affix a title to his work, in order to give a pleasing standpoint for judging it, as a painter had to name his picture.

And in the case of music, he added, as in that of painting, the real question finally was not whether the suggestion of the title had been fully satisfied, but whether the picture were good painting and the composition good music.

If it were good music, no flaw in the title and no disagreement between the title and the work could impair its value and lasting quality.

When carefully scrutinized, the progress of music during the present century has been governed by certain leading principles which are not contradictory, although at first glance they might appear so.

Since the time of the Netherlandish contrapuntists, the primary impulse in musical creation has been the _musical_ ideal--the creation of tonal fancies, novel, inspiring, musical, satisfactory.

Out of this desire has arisen the entire fabric of fugue, sonata, symphony and the whole world of free music.

And at every period there have been those also who sought to connect these tonal fancies with the inner life of the spirit--to awaken feeling, inspire imagination, deepen dramatic impression; in short, to give us in place of irresponsible tonal crystallizations a poetically conceived discourse, operative upon the feelings and stimulative to the entire mind.

This was the ideal of the new movement in Italy at the beginning of the seventeenth century, and opera has steadily worked along this ideal.

Sebastian Bach had moments when he himself attempted the programme music; and Beethoven made many attempts of the same kind, some of which are significant and lasting.

Hence the romantic impulse was not something new in the history of music, but the blossoming of buds from seeds planted long before.

The programme music of Berlioz was simply larger and more flamboyant than the little exercises of Bach in the same direction.

Wagner's idea of bringing together the entire resources of musical, dramatic and scenic art into a single highly complex work was merely the idea of the unity of all the arts, upon which Æschylus worked two thousand years earlier, and upon which Jacopo Peri and Claudio Monteverde worked at the beginning of the seventeenth century.

In short, the art of music, while in this century being enriched by a multitude of new creations representing a variety of subordinate ideals, is nevertheless still a unity, constantly becoming more elaborate and masterly upon the tonal side, and continually more and more in touch with the deeper springs of duration in art, the intuitively realized correspondence between certain art forms and modes of expression and human feeling.

The composers of the last quarter of the century are very numerous;

indeed, so numerous that a catalogue even of their names would occupy too much space.

Moreover, their proximity to our own times brings them too near for successfully estimating their places in the pantheon of art, or even for the much simpler task of deciding upon certain names which undoubtedly should occupy places in the list.

For present purposes it will be more convenient to notice them by nationalities, since every racial stock has certain individualities and ideals which the national composers eventually bring into art, as we see brilliantly illustrated in the case of the Russians, both in music and in painting.

There are, however, certain names which stand out above all others and at the present writing appear destined for place among or very near the immortals of the first order.

These great names are those of Johannes Brahms, Camille Saint-Saëns, Peter Ilitsch Tschaikowsky, Antonin Dvorak and Edvard Grieg.

I. MUSIC IN GERMANY.

In Germany, very naturally, the activity in the higher departments of music remains more intense than in any other country, and the seat of musical empire may be said to still abide in southern Germany, where it was established by Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven.

The most eminent living composer in the higher department of the art, Johannes Brahms, resides at Vienna since these many years; there also Max Bruch long resided, and there the greatest of the light opera composers, the Strauss family and Von Suppé, have lived and worked.

It is in the provinces of the Austro-Hungarian empire, moreover, that the Bohemian composer, Dvorak, has his home.

In Johannes Brahms (1833- ) we have still living a musical master of the first order, whose quality as master is shown in his marvelous technique, in which respect no recent composer is to be mentioned as his superior, if any can be named since Bach his equal.

This technique was at first personal, at the pianoforte, upon which he was a virtuoso of phenomenal rank; but this renown, great as it is in well informed circles, sinks into insignificance beside his marvelous ability at marshaling musical periods, elaborating together the most dissimilar and apparently incompatible subjects, and his powers of varying a given theme and of unfolding from it ever something new.

These wonderful gifts, for such they were rather than laboriously acquired attainments, Brahms showed at the first moment when the light of musical history shines upon him.

It was in 1853, when the Hungarian violinist, Edouard Remenyi, found him at Hamburgh and engaged him as accompanist and having ascertained his astonishing talents, brought him, a young man of twenty, to Liszt at Weimar, with his first trio and certain other compositions in manuscript.

The new talent made a prodigious effect upon Liszt, who needed not that any one should certify to him whether a composer had genius or merely talent.

The Liszt circle took up the Brahms cult in earnest, played the trio at the chamber concerts, and the members when they departed to their homes generally carried with them their admiration of this new personality which had appeared in music.

Johannes Brahms was born at Hamburgh, May 7, 1833, the son of a fine musician who was player upon the double bass in the orchestra there.

The boy was always intended for a musician, and his instruction was taken in hand with so much success that at the age of fourteen he played in public pieces by Bach and Beethoven, and a set of original variations.

At the age of twenty he was a master, and it was in this year that he accompanied Remenyi, made the acquaintance of Joachim and Liszt, and had a rarely appreciative notice from a master no less than Robert Schumann himself, who in his _New Journal of Music_ said: "He has come, a youth at whose cradle graces and heroes kept watch.

Sitting at the piano he began to unveil wonderful regions.

We were drawn into more and more magical circles by his playing, full of genius, which made of the piano an orchestra of lamenting and jubilant voices.

There were sonatas, or rather veiled symphonies; songs whose poetry might be understood without words; piano pieces both of a demoniac nature and of the most graceful form; sonatas for piano and violin; string quartettes, each so different from every other that they seemed to flow from many different springs.

Whenever he bends his magic wand, there, when the powers of the orchestra and chorus lend him their aid, further glimpses of the magic world will be revealed to us.

May the highest genius strengthen him!

Meanwhile the spirit of modesty dwells within him.

His comrades greet him at his first entrance into the world of art, where wounds may perhaps await him, but bay and laurel also; we welcome him as a valiant warrior."

The next few years were spent by Brahms in directing orchestra and chorus at Detmold and elsewhere, and in Switzerland, which has always had great attraction for him.

In 1859 he played in Leipsic his first great pianoforte concerto; most of the criticisms thereon were, however, such as now excite mirth.

Lately he has played in Leipsic again, conducted several of his works, and was greeted with the reverence and enthusiasm due the greatest living representative of the art of music.

In 1862 Brahms located in Vienna, where he has almost ever since resided.

Mr. Louis Kestelborn, in "Famous Composers and Their Works," says: "About thirty years ago the writer first saw Brahms in his Swiss home; at that time he was of a rather delicate, slim-looking figure, with a beardless face of ideal expression.

Since then he has changed in appearance, until now he looks the very image of health, being stout and muscular, the noble manly face surrounded by a full gray beard.

The writer well remembers singing under his direction, watching him conduct orchestra rehearsals, hearing him play alone or with orchestra, listening to an after-dinner speech or private conversation, observing him when attentively listening to other works, and seeing the modest smile with which he accepted, or rather declined, expressions of admiration."

The most important works of Brahms, aside from his "German Requiem," are four symphonies for orchestra, two concertos for pianoforte, a concerto for violin and 'cello with orchestra, a violin concerto, many songs, a variety of compositions for chamber, embracing a number for unusual combinations of instruments (such as clarinet and horn with piano), sonatas for piano solo, etc. In the songs he attains a simple and direct expression, not surpassed in musical quality since Schubert and Schumann; in the concertos he is more for music than for display, which is merely to say that in conceiving the display of his solo instrument, he has sought rather to display it at its best in a musical sense than to exhibit its peculiar tricks of dexterity.

As a symphonist he follows classic form, and is more successful than any other writer in the slow movements, a department in which most of the later writers are distinctly weak, since in an idealized folk song (which is the essential ideal of the symphonic slow movement) poverty of imagination cannot be concealed by dexterity of thematic treatment and modulation.

As a writer for the pianoforte he has made important enlargements of the technique, not alone in his arrangement of easier compositions by earlier writers, but still more by original demands upon the fingers, as illustrated in his great sets of variations.

Distinguished among German composers is Max Bruch (1838- ) who was born at Cologne, and educated there and almost everywhere else in Germany.

Bruch is best known by his works for chorus with orchestra, of which "Frithjof," "A Roman Song of Triumph," "The Song of the Three Kings," "Odysseus," "Arminius" are best known.

His concerto for violin is also played in all parts of the world, but his opera of "Hermione" made but a moderate success at Berlin in 1872. Riemann considers his greatest works for mixed chorus to be "Odysseus," "Arminius," "The Song of the Bell," and for male chorus "Frithjof," "Salamis" and "The Normans."

His style is closely wrought, musical, full of deep and natural musical expression, and well colored instrumentation.

Anton Bruckner (1824- ) a highly gifted organist and composer, has written seven symphonies, in which the style is very modern, and shows the influence of the theatrical style of Wagner.

He is a composer of considerable vigor.

II. MUSIC IN RUSSIA.

The awakening of musical art has been remarkable in all parts of the civilized world, and in many countries not previously distinguished in music composers have arisen who have embodied the rhythms and spirit of the national songs in their works, composed dramatic works upon national subjects, and so have created a national school of music.

In some cases the works of these men have proven of world-wide acceptance; in others they have set in operation musical life in their own country, and have been followed quickly by younger composers working in a more cosmopolitan vein, who have created works which have been taken into the current of the world's music and bid fair to hold an honorable position in the pantheon.

[Illustration: MICHAIL IVANOVITCH GLINKA.

] One of the most brilliant cases of this kind is Russia, that country so vast, so powerful, so mysterious.

The first composer in Russia to distinguish himself and to create a national opera was Michail Ivanovitch Glinka (1803-1877), born near Selna.

His first schooling was at the Adelsinstitute in St. Petersburg, where he distinguished himself in languages.

But presently, under the teaching of Bohme upon the violin and Carl Mayer in pianoforte and theory, he showed the musical stuff which was in him.

Leaving Russia for his health, he resided four years in Italy, constantly studying and incessantly composing.

On his way back to Russia he placed himself for a time under the teaching of the distinguished S. Dehn in Berlin, in theory.

Dehn recognized his originality and encouraged him to write "Russian" music.

His first opera, "A Life for the Czar" (December 9, 1836), was a great triumph.

The subject was national, the contrast between Polish and Russian subjects in the music was brilliant, and actual or simulated folk songs gave a local coloring highly grateful to the Russian audience.

The work received innumerable repetitions and still remains one of the most popular operatic works upon the Russian stage.

His next work, "Ruslan and Ludmilla," was also successful, and Liszt, who happened to be in Russia at the moment of its production, accorded the young composer distinguished praise.

Berlioz took up the pen in honor of Glinka and of his new Russian school of music, and so the composer's powers were widely celebrated.

During the remainder of his life Glinka made long residences in the south, especially in Spain, and several orchestral works, with Spanish coloring, represent this portion of his creative career.

His last years were spent in rural life near St. Petersburgh, busy with new opera projects, and especially seeking some rational manner of harmonizing the Russian popular songs.

Riemann calls Glinka "the Berlioz of Russia," in the originality of his invention and his clever technique; and something more, namely, that he created a national school of music for his country.

The list of his works is very long, embracing compositions in almost every province.

There are two symphonies, both unfinished, several dances for orchestra, a number of chamber compositions of various combinations of instruments, a tarantella for orchestra, with song and dance ("_La Kamarinskaia_"), etc. His operas, however, are his lasting monument.

[Illustration: ANTON VON RUBINSTEIN.

] The next great name in the roll of Russian music is that of the pianist, Anton von Rubinstein (1830-1895), who was born at Wechwotynez, in Bessarabia.

His father presently removed to Moscow, where he carried on a manufactory of lead pencils.

The boy Anton showed such talent for music under the skillful and affectionate teaching of his mother, that at the age of ten he was brought before various musical authorities in Paris for opinions concerning his talent.

His concert life began almost immediately from this period.

His mother went with him, and wherever there were pauses of a few days the studies were resumed, exactly as had been the case with Mozart, long before.

In 1848 he found a friend and appreciative companion in the Princess Helene, and then he wrote several operas upon Russian subjects, of which two were published--"Dimitri Donskoi" and "Toms der Narr."

The success of these works was such that in 1854 the composer was given a subvention for further foreign study by the Princess Helene and Count Wielhorski, upon which followed four brilliant years of incessant activity as virtuoso pianist and composer, extending as far as London and Paris.

Rubinstein had already lived some years in Berlin, where he was as well known as at home.

Returning to Russia in 1859, he received important appointments as musical director, founded the St. Petersburg musical conservatory, of which he remained the director until 1867, when ensued a new series of concert journeys covering Europe, and in 1872-1873 extending to America, where he had a wonderful success, carrying back to Russia as proceeds of the American tour the at that time unprecedented sum of ,000. As pianist, Rubinstein was distinguished for his grand style, broad and noble mastery of the instrument, and his consummate sympathy and innate musical quality.

He was a player of moods, at times playing like a god, at other times his work disfigured by many errors, but always interesting, commanding and noble.

He played best the compositions of Beethoven and Schumann, their innate depth and intense musical expression appealing to his richly gifted musical nature irresistibly.

His personality was commanding and attractive.

Saint-Saëns relates how Rubinstein played in Paris the concertos of Beethoven and of Rubinstein, while Saint-Saëns conducted the orchestra.

At the close of the concerts Rubinstein desired to give yet another in which he himself would direct the orchestra, while Saint-Saëns should play.

It was for this occasion that the Saint-Saëns second concerto was written.

In his later life Rubinstein lived like a prince in a beautiful estate near St. Petersburgh.

The list of his works is something enormous.

Of operas and dramatic works there are twelve, several of which, such as "The Tower of Babel," "Paradise Lost" and "Moses," are biblical operas, a type of dramatico mystical work created by Rubinstein.

It contains the gravity and depth of oratorio combined with the intense realism of the stage.

There are six symphonies, of which the famous and several times enlarged "Ocean" symphony is perhaps best known, a "Heroic Fantasia" for orchestra, three character pieces for orchestra, "Faust," "Don Quixote" and "Ivan"; three concert overtures, a quantity of chamber music, compositions for piano, songs, and the like.

In everything of Rubinstein beautiful melodies are found; his weakness lies in the development, which occasionally is carried too far, and with insufficient vitality of thematic work.

[Illustration: PETER ILITSCH TSCHAIKOWSKY.

] Even greater than Rubinstein as composer was the brilliant Peter Ilitsch Tschaikowsky (1840-1893).

Tschaikowsky was intended for the profession of the law, in which he took his degree.

But his love for music asserted itself, and after a short career as pupil in the St. Petersburgh conservatory, he was appointed teacher of harmony in that institution, and entered upon his career as composer.

Here he remained but a short time, resigning in 1877, after which he lived by turns at St. Petersburgh, in Italy and in Switzerland.

Tschaikowsky was of a lyric musical nature, and in his early life his taste was entirely for Italian music.

This shows to a remarkable degree in all his earlier productions, even if he had not himself published the fact so often and unmistakably.

In 1869 he produced his first Russian opera, "Der Woiwode" which was followed by eight others, of which the best known are "Eugene Onegin" and "Makula, the Smith."

Several of these are now played throughout Europe.

It was in his orchestral compositions, however, that Tschaikowsky most illustrated his unexampled powers.

Besides a number of brilliant and highly sensational overtures, he composed six symphonies, of unexampled sonority, rich coloring and strange musical expression.

The fifth symphony of Tschaikowsky met with almost universal recognition at the hands of the leading orchestral conductors of the world; and the last, the so-called "Tragic," only deepened the impression of the composer's powers.

Several points are unusual.

The themes themselves are original, forceful and lend themselves easily to elaboration.

The harmonic treatment is highly original, as if the author had found, as Bülow said, "new harmonic paths."

The instrumentation is richly colored and the climaxes are of vast power and effect.

The whole is a grandly composed tone poem which even if regarded as surpassing the proper reserve of symphonic form must nevertheless be counted as one of the most valuable enrichments of the world's orchestral repertory.

In several places in his works Tschaikowsky introduces peculiarities of Russian folk music, as for example in the movement in 5-4 measure in the fifth measure symphony.

Nevertheless, the works belong to the world's music, being in no sense provincial, narrow or limited.

Æsthetically considered, they illustrate the quick technique and over-mastering energy of the race to which the composer belonged.

III. MUSIC IN BOHEMIA.

Another country in which a notable musical revival has taken place during the latter part of the present century is Bohemia, where two names are to be mentioned.

Bedrich Smetana (1824-1884), is to be remembered as the creator, or at least the awakener, of Bohemian music.

After a short education at the Prague university Smetana entered diligently upon the study of music, becoming a brilliant pianist, and as such forming one of the circle of enthusiastic and advancing souls surrounding Liszt at Weimar, between 1850 and 1860. His first position as musical director was at Gothenberg, 1856. Here he lost his wife, the brilliant pianist Katharina Kolar.

In 1861 he made a long concert tour to Sweden.

In 1866 he was appointed director of the music at the national theater in Prague, a position which he held until obliged to give it up on account of loss of hearing in 1874. Smetana wrote eight operas upon Bohemian subjects, with music in the Bohemian spirit; one best known is "The Bartered Bride," which was the last composed.

He also wrote about ten symphonies or symphonic poems, and a great variety of chamber music.

Of his symphonic poems those most often played are: "In Wallenstein's Camp," "Moldau," "Sarka" and "Visegrad."

In all these the titles are mainly suggestive, although in "Sarka" a programme is quite closely followed.

Smetana was a brilliant composer, but his value lies in his awakening of the Bohemians to musical creation.

[Illustration: BEDRICH SMETANA.

] [Illustration: ANTON DVORAK.

] The most brilliant name in Bohemian music, and the one most valued by the world in general, is that of Anton Dvorak (1841- ), who was the son of a butcher at Mulhausen.

The boy early applied himself to the violin, and after some years' playing in small orchestras, found a place as violinist in the orchestra of the National theater at Prague.

This was at the age of nineteen.

About ten years later he first attracted attention as composer, by means of a hymn for mixed chorus and orchestra.

The attention of his countrymen, thus gained, Dvorak fastened still more by a succession of compositions of varied scope, ranging from the Slavic dances and Slavic rhapsodies to symphonies, chamber music and choral works of great brilliancy.

In 1892 Dr. Dvorak was called to New York as director of the so-called National Conservatory of Music.

In 1895 he returned to Bohemia.

The choral works of Dvorak were generally first written for English musical festivals.

"The Specter's Bride," "Stabat Mater," "Saint Ludmilla."

The list of his works includes five symphonies for full orchestra, several concert overtures, a very beautiful air and variations for orchestra, and seven operas upon Bohemian subjects.

Dvorak is one of the most gifted composers of the present time, especially in the matter of technique.

His thematic treatment is always clever, his orchestral coloring rich and varied, and his style elegant.

If deficiency is to be recorded concerning him it is in invention or innate weight of ideas.

During his residence in America he promulgated the idea that an American school of music was to be created by developing the themes and rhythms of the negro melodies, and he wrote a symphony, "From the New World," in order to illustrate his meaning.

The second or slow movement of this work attained a distinguished success almost everywhere; but the themes of the first and last movement are not sufficient for the treatment they receive.

This work has been more successful in Europe than in this country.

Perhaps the most notable quality of Dr. Dvorak's personality is his naiveté, which shows well in his music.

He is quite like a modern Haydn, who has learned and remembered everything of musical coloration which has been discovered, but who applies his knowledge in a simple and direct manner without straining after effect.

IV. MUSIC IN SCANDINAVIA.

[Illustration: EDVARD HAGERUP GRIEG.

] Foremost of Scandinavian composers is Edvard Hagerup Grieg (1843- ), who was born at Bergen, Norway, and received his early musical education from his mother, who was an excellent pianist, and very musical.

By the advice of the celebrated violinist, Ole Bull, Grieg was sent in 1858 to Leipsic for further instruction, where he became a pupil of Moscheles, Hauptmann, Reinecke, Richter and Wenzel.

In 1863 he pursued further studies under Gade at Copenhagen.

In companionship with a talented young composer, Ricard Nordraak, Grieg set himself, as he says, "against the faded Scandinavianism of Gade and Mendelssohn intermingled, and undertook to put into tones the real beauty, strength and inner spirit of the northern folks-life."

He composed in many varieties of work, and in 1879 attained German recognition by playing his own piano concerto at the Gewandhaus in Leipsic.

Grieg's works are full of poetry, easy and natural expression, and are pervaded by northern coloring, so decided as in some cases to approach what in speech is called dialect.

Nevertheless, it is indubitable that his music has distinctly enriched the world's stream of tone-poetry, and introduced a new accent and voice.

He has distinguished himself in almost every department, in songs, choral work, chamber music, symphonies, sonatas for piano and piano and violin, and orchestral suites, of which perhaps his two "Peer Gynt" are the most celebrated.

In person Grieg is slight, fair-haired, with lovely deep blue eyes and a charming manner.

He is subject to pulmonary weakness, and is compelled to reside much of his time in warmer climates than those of his native land.

[Illustration: [autograph] Niels W. Gade] An older composer than Grieg is Niels Wilhelm Gade (1817-1890), of Copenhagen, who after a thorough musical education received in his native city, attracted wider attention in 1841 by taking the prize for his concert overture, "Night Sounds from Ossian," the judges being Fr.

Schneider and Spohr, the violinist.

This gave Gade a royal stipendium, with which he immediately betook himself to study at Leipsic, where he came under the personal influence of Mendelssohn, an influence which he never outgrew.

At the death of Mendelssohn he was appointed director of the Gewandhaus, but not proving in all respects satisfactory he held the position only a part of one season.

After the death of Gläser in 1861, Gade was made royal music director at Copenhagen, a position which he filled many years.

He was active as composer in every direction, his published works embracing eight symphonies, five overtures, two concertos for violin and orchestra, three violin sonatas, several cantatas for mixed voices, soli and orchestra, and many other works.

The ultimate judgment of Gade as a tone-poet is likely to be that while distinctly talented, he never attained imagination of the first order.

Among the younger composers Christian Sinding (1856- ) is to be mentioned.

Besides many works for chamber, he has written one symphony, which while not very original gives promise of better productions later.

V. MUSIC IN ENGLAND.

The relation of England to the higher art of music has been peculiar.

In the sixteenth century and earlier it was one of the most musical countries in Europe; but from the appearance of Händel, about 1720, German music and German composers absorbed public attention to the exclusion of the natives--no one of whom, it may be added, evinced creative powers of any high order.

England was a liberal patron of all the leading German masters, from Haydn, who wrote twelve symphonies for the London Philharmonic, to Beethoven, whose ninth symphony was written for the same society; Mendelssohn, whose "Elijah," was written for the Birmingham festival, and Wagner, who received handsome compensation for conducting a series of concerts in London.

A little past the middle of the present century, however, more creative activity began to show itself among English composers, until at the present time there are excellent English composers in all the leading departments of musical production.

The more celebrated names follow.

One of the most graceful and talented of English composers was Sir William Sterndale Bennett (1816-1875), who came of a musical stock, and was duly trained as a choir boy in King's Chapel, and at the Royal Academy of Music.

In 1836 he went to Leipsic, in order to profit by the Gewandhaus concerts there and the friendship of Mendelssohn.

Here he produced a number of orchestral compositions which were so highly esteemed that in 1853 the directorship of the Gewandhaus concerts was offered him.

After a short sojourn at Leipsic he returned to London, where he ever after lived, highly honored as composer, pianist, teacher and man.

In 1856 he became the conductor of the London Philharmonic concerts, and in 1866 principal of the Royal Academy of Music.

He was knighted in 1871, having previously been honored by degrees from Cambridge and Oxford.

He was professor of music in Cambridge University from 1856 until his death.

As a composer Bennett was influenced by Mendelssohn, but he had much delicacy of fancy and a certain originality of his own.

His compositions embrace four concertos for piano and orchestra, several concert overtures for orchestra, one symphony, much chamber music, a cantata, "The May Queen" (1858), "The Woman of Samaria" (1867), and a number of occasional odes, anthems and part songs.

The successor of Sterndale Bennett as principal of the Royal Academy of Music was Sir George A. Macfarren (1813-1887), who although totally blind for many years before his death, produced a greater number of important compositions than any other English composer of the century.

He was educated in London, and in 1834 became one of the professors in the Royal Academy of Music.

His first opera was produced in 1838, "Devil's Opera," "Don Quixote" (1836), "Jessy Lea" (1863) and "Helvellyn" (1864).

He wrote a number of cantatas for chorus and orchestra, oratorios, "St. John the Baptist" (1873), "The Resurrection" (1876), "Joseph" (1877), and other works of less importance.

There are also many anthems, several overtures and other pieces for chamber.

Personally he was kind-hearted, intelligent, helpful and public spirited.

The amount of work that he accomplished under the greatest of disadvantages is wonderful, as well as its generally superior quality.

As a lecturer and teacher he was the foremost musical Englishman of his time.

His compositions are strong and respectable, but not especially inspired.

The successor of Sir Geo.

Macfarren in the principalship of the Royal Academy of Music was Alexander Campbell Mackenzie (1847- ), the youngest eminent English composer, but also the most successful and promising.

He was educated as a violinist, and resided at Edinburgh as a teacher of the pianoforte and violin until his compositions attracted the attention of his countrymen and induced his being called to London.

The most important compositions of Dr. Mackenzie up to the present time are the operas "Colomba" (1883), "The Troubadour" (1886) and the oratorio "The Rose of Sharon" (1884).

There are several cantatas, "Jason," "The Bride," "The Story of Sayid" (1886) and a considerable number of orchestral pieces, of which two Scotch rhapsodies and the overture to "Twelfth Night" are the best known.

He has also produced a violin concerto (played by Mr. Sarasate), and much chamber music and songs.

On the whole, Dr. Mackenzie seems the most gifted English composer who has yet appeared.

[Illustration] INDEX.

"Abel", 351 "Abou Hassan", 408 Académie de Musique, 238 Adam, 491 Adam de la Halle, 122 Æschylus, 55 "Africaine", 414 "Agnes von Hohenstaufen", 479 "Aida", 485 "Alceste", 333 "Alcidor", 479 "Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung", 464 Amati, 201 Ambrosian Scales, 131 Anglo-Saxon Harp, 104 Anglo-Saxons, Music among, 96 "Anna Bolena", 482 Antiquity, Music in, 23 Apprentice Periods of Music, 22 Arabs and Saracens, 109 "Arianna", 224 Aristophanes, 57 Aristotle, 58, 65 Aristoxenus, 58 Arkadelt, 165 Art, Conditions of Its Development, 18 Art Forms, Qualities of, 20 "Ascanio", 494 Assyrian Harps, 45 Assyrians, Music among, 46 Auber, 488 Aurelian, 139 Bach, 265, 468 Bach as Melodist, 272 Bach, Emanuel, 282 Banjo, Ancient, 46 Bar in Vocal Music, 186 Bardi, Count of, 221 Bards, 89 Barytone, 196 "Basilius", 242 Bayreuth, 425 "Beatrice and Benedict", 435 Bede, 139 Beethoven, 305, 316, 319, 320, 355, 499 Bellini, 482 Bellows Bags in Old Organs, 206 Bennett, 501 Berger, 361 Berlioz, 432 Berlioz and Mendelssohn, 434 Bizet, 495 Blondel, 123 Blow, Dr. John, 354 Boethius, 135 Boieldieu, 343 Boito, 486 Bologna, Mozart at, 295 Books Published, 220 Boscherville Sculptures, 208 Brahms, 498 Braithwaite's Musicians for an Earl's Household, 213 Breton Song, 88 Bruce's Harpers, 30 Bruch, 500 Bülow, 423, 507 Buxtehude, 254 "Caliph de Bagdad", 344 "Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage", 457 Calzabigi, 333 Cambert, 236 "Cantilena of St. Eulalie", 116 Canzone, 249 Carissimi, 245 Cassiodorus, 137 Cavalli, 226, 231 "Caverne, La", 342 Celts, 87 Centers of Music, 17th Century, 220 Cesti, 226 Chansons de Geste, 115 "Cheval de Bronze, Le", 490 China, 73 Chitarrone, 193 Chopin, 441 Choral Song, 53 Choral Works of Bach, 268 Chromatic Keyboards, 205 Church Influence, 128 Cithara, 64 Clementi, 355, 357 Concerto, 249 "Concertstück", 411 Corelli, 255 "Corpse Fantasia", 383 Council of Trent, 174 Cramer, 360 Cremona, 198 "Crociato, Il", 141 "Crown Diamonds", 490 Crwth, 24, 106 Cypriano de Rore, 172 "Dafne", 222 "Damnation of Faust", 434 Délibes, 494 "Devil's Trill", 366 "Devin du Village", 339 Didactic of Music, 134 "Dido and Æneas", 349 "Dinorah", 415 "Don Giovanni", 300 Donizetti, 482 "Don Sanché", 446 Drama, Ancient, 54, 55 Druids, 89 Dufay, 158 Dussek, 357 Düsseldorf, Mendelssohn, 459 Dvorak, 503 Egyptians, Early, 25 Elements of Music, 15 "Elijah", 461 English Round, 100 "Entführung aus dem Serail", 297 "Esther," Händel, 277 Eoud, 113 Epics, French Mediæval, 115 "Erl King, The", 384 "Ernani", 485 "Euryanthe", 409 "Eve", 493 "Faust," Berlioz, 434 "Faust," Gounod, 491 "Faust," Schumann, 474 "Faust," Spohr, 369 "Fernand Cortez", 478 Fétis, on the Celts, 90 Field, 356 Fleurettes, 157 Flute, Egyptian, 28 Flute, Greek, 64 Flute, Hebrew, 42 Form, Principles of, 20 "Fra Diavolo", 490 Franco of Cologne, 146, 156, 186 Franco of Paris, 147, 157 Frauenlob, 125 French Opera, Origin of, 225 French Tenacity of Vernacular, 239 Frescobaldi, 252 Fugue, 151, 262, 263, 270 Fugue, Chromatic, 271 Gade, 497 "Gioconda, La", 487 "God and Nature", 413 Grieg, 500 "Harmony and Meter", 460 "Harold in Italy", 434 Heller, 504 Henselt, 504 Hérold, 490 Hiller, 505 "Huron, Le", 341 India, Music in, 70 India, Musical Drama in, 73 Individualism, 374 Instrumental Music, 249 Instruments, Relation to Progress, 20 "Iphigenie", 335 Ireland, Music in, 95 Irish Harp, 97 Iron Frame, 401 Iron Tension Bar, 399 Isidore, of Seville, 138 "Ismene", 242 Italian School of Singing, 228 Japanese, 77 "Jean de Paris", 344 "Jephthah," Carissimi, 245 "Jessonda", 369 Jomelli, 346 Josquin, 163 Jubal, 43 "Judith", 351 Kerl, 253 Kindergarten, Egyptian, 39 King Arthur, 98 King David Playing, 24 Kinnor, 42 Klauser, "Septonnate", 17 Ko-ko, 77 "Kreisleriana", 471 Kuhnau, 354 "Lakmé", 494 Lalo, 495 Landseer Portrait of Paganini, 431 Lassus, 167 Leading Motive, 410 "L'Elisir d'Amore", 482 Léonin, 153 Liszt, 446, 447 Liszt and "Lohengrin", 418 Liszt and the Later Sonatas of Beethoven, 323 Liszt, Pupils of, 451 Liszt's Appearance, 454 Litolff, 504 "Lucia", 482 Lulli, 236 Luther, 175 Lyre, Egyptian, 33 Lyre, Greek, 64 Lyric Element in Music, 263 Macfarren, 501 Mackenzie, 503 Macrobus, 134 Madrigal, 215 Madrigal in Opera, 217 Magadis, 64 "Marion Delorme", 487 Martinus Capella, 135 "Marriage of Jeannette", 493 Mask, 225 Mason's Enthusiasm for Schumann, 475 "Masaniello", 489 Massé, 492 Massenet, 493 Mediæval Violins, 195 Méhul, 342 "Mefistofele", 486 "Meistersinger, Die", 423 Mendelssohn, 455 Mendelssohn on Berlioz, 434 Mendelssohn's Relation to Schubert, 377 "Messe Solennelle," Rossini, 481 Metastasio, 333 Meyerbeer, 411 "Mignon", 495 Minnesingers, 123 Minstrels of the North, 87 Miracle Plays, 244 "Mireille", 491 Mixtures in Old Organs, 207 Modes, Greek, 61 "Moise", 481 Monody and Homophony, 198 Monsigny, 339 Monteverde, 224 "Mors et Vita", 492 Moscheles, 362 Moscheles with Mendelssohn, 455 Moszkowsky, 503 Motette, 154 Mozart, 299 Mozart as an Operatic Force, 336 Mozart on Jomelli, 346 Naples Schools, 169 "Nero", 486 Neumæ, 181 Nicodé, 503 "Nibelung's Ring", 420 "Norma", 483 Notation, 179 Notation, Roman, 189 "Nurmahal," 1822, 479 "Oberon", 409 Odon, 143 Okeghem, 162 Old French School, 153 Opera, 223 Opera in Germany and France, 235 Opera in 16th Century, 327 Opera and Drama, 427 Opera, Future of, 427 Oratorio, 223, 244 Oratorio in Costume, 280 Orchestic, Greek, 56 Orchestra at End of 17th Century, 256 Orchestra, Corelli's, 255 Orchestra, Monteverde's, 224 Organ, Early Form, 202 Organ, Portable, 204 Organ at Winchester, 98 Organ Music Notation, 251 Organum, 142 Orlando di Lassus, 166 "Orpheus," Gluck's, 333 "Otello", 485 "Otello," 1816, 479 Pachelbel, 253 Paganini, 428 Paisiello, 347 Palestrina, 173 Parish-Alvars, 439 "Parsifal", 426 Passions, Bach, 269 Patriotic Use of Music, 52 Pentatonic Scales, 74 People's Song, 263 Perceptions of Tone, 85 Pergolesi, 345 Pérotin, 153 Perrin, the Abbé, 326 Petrucci, 217 Phantasiestücke, Schumann, 469 Philippe de Vitry, 157 Phillidor, 339 Piccini, 347 Pindar, Ode of, 69 Pizzicati, 224 Plato, 67 Pollini, 439 "Polliodoro," Graun, 328 "Polyeucte", 491 Ponchielli, 487 Popular Taste for Music, 213 Popularity in 19th Century, 373, 379 Polyphonic Schools of Italy, 168 Polyphony as an Art Form, 151 Porpora, 228 "Postillon de Lonjumeau, Le", 491 "Pré aux Clercs, Le", 490 "Promessi Sposi, I", 487 "Prophète", 414 Ptolemy, 61 Pupils of Liszt, 452 Purcell, 349 "Puritani, I", 483 "Pygmalion", 339 Pythagoras, 59 Rameau, 336 Ratios, Greek Tetrachord, 61 Ravanastron, 72 Rebec, 196 "Redemption, The", 492 Reinecke, 508 Reinken, 254 Reinmar, 127 Rémi, 139 "Representative Style", 223 "Requiem," Berlioz, 434 "Requiem," Mozart, 303 "Rheingold, Das", 420 Rhythm of Bach, 271 Rhythmic Development, 188 Ricerari, 249 "Rienzi", 416 Rinuccini, 222 "Robert le Diable", 414 "Robin and Marian", 236 Roman Notation, 180 Romantic, The, 373 "Romilda e Constanza", 413 Rondo, 155 Rossini, 479 Rota, 150 Rousseau, 338 "Rubezahl", 408 Rubinstein, 505 Saint-Saëns, 493 Santir, 114 Saracens, 109 Saracens, Instruments of, 112 "Sardanapolis", 433 Scales, Greek, 60 Scales, Ambrosian, 129, 130 Scandinavians, Music among, 99 Scarlatti, A. , 227, 232 Scarlatti, D. , 275, 353 Scheidt, 250 Schein, 251 School of Munich, 166 Schools of the Netherlands, 160 Schubert, 376, 381 Schulhoff, 504 Schumann, 464-477 Schütz and "Dafne", 239 Scotch Melody, 108 "Septonnate", 17 "Serva Padrona, La", 344 "Siegfried", 421 Socrates, 56 Sonata Form, 264 Sonatas, Bach, 265 Sonatas, Beethoven, 309, 319, 322 Sonatas, Corelli, 255 Sonatas, Haydn, 288, 317 Sonatas, Weber, 410 "Song of Roland", 118 "Song of the Harper", 36 Songs of Schubert, 384 Songs of Schumann, 468 Songs of Troubadours, 121 "Songs without Words", 458 "Sonnambula, La", 482 Spinet, 393, 396 Spohr, 366 Spontini, 478 Staff, 185 Steinway, 402 St. Ambrose, 129 St. Mark's, 133 "St. Paul", 459 "Sumer is Icumen in", 101 Svensden, 500 Swelinck, 250 "Symphoniæ Sacræ", 247 Symphonies, Beethoven, 319 Symphonies, Haydn, 288 Symphonies, Mendelssohn, 464 Symphonies, Schumann, 474 Symphony, 316 "Tancredi", 479 "Tannhäuser", 418 Tartini, 364 Tausig, 505 Technique, Modern, 436, 446 Terpander, 52 Thalberg, 438 Thales, 52 Theaters in Venice, 226 Thematic Work, Schumann, 473 Theory, India, 70 Theory, Mediæval, 134, 147 Thomas, Ambroise, 495 Tinctor, 163 Thomaschek, 359 "Tom Jones", 339 Tonality, 84 Tone Perceptions, 17, 55 "Traviata, La", 485 "Triads of Britain", 93 "Tristan and Isolde", 423 Troubadours, 121 "Trovatore, Il", 485 Tschaikowsky, 499 Verdi, 483 "Vestale, La", 478 Vina, 71 Viol da Gamba, 164 Violin Making, 195 Violin, Stradivarius, 199 Virtuosity, 378 Virtuoso Element, 19th Century, 428 Vitry, Philippe de, 157 Wagner, 416 Wagner and Berlioz, 434 Wagner, "Die Walküre", 420 Weber, 406 Weber as Pianist, 410, 437 Weber's Influence on Piano Playing, 410 Weimar, Liszt at, 449 Welsh, Music of, 93 Wieck, 467 Wilhelm, Count, Troubadour, 121 Willaert, Adrien, 171 Winchester, Organ at, 98 "Zampa", 490 Zarlino, 171, 257 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