Montcalm and Wolfe — Chapter 31, Part 2

Choiseul was vivacious, brilliant, keen, penetrating; believing nothing, fearing nothing; an easy moralist, an uncertain ally, a hater of priests; light-minded, inconstant; yet a kind of patriot, eager to serve France and retrieve her fortunes.

He flattered himself with no illusions.

"Since we do not know how to make war," he said, "we must make peace;"[863] and he proposed a congress of all the belligerent Powers at Augsburg.

At the same time, since the war in Germany was distinct from the maritime and colonial war of France and England, he proposed a separate negotiation with the British Court in order to settle the questions between them as a preliminary to the general pacification.

Pitt consented, and Stanley went as envoy to Versailles; while M. de Bussy came as envoy to London and, in behalf of Choiseul, offered terms of peace, the first of which was the entire abandonment of Canada to England.

[864] But the offers were accompanied by the demand that Spain, which had complaints of its own against England, should be admitted as a party to the negotiation, and even hold in some measure the attitude of a mediator.

Pitt spurned the idea with fierce contempt.

"Time enough to treat of all that, sir, when the Tower of London is taken sword in hand."

[865] He bore his part with the ability that never failed him, and with a supreme arrogance that rose to a climax in his demand that the fortress of Dunkirk should be demolished, not because it was any longer dangerous to England, but because the nation would regard its destruction "as an eternal monument of the yoke imposed on France."

[866] [Footnote 863: Flassan, _Diplomatie Française_, V. 376 (Paris, 1809).

] [Footnote 864: See the proposals in Entick, V. 161. ] [Footnote 865: Beatson, _Military Memoirs_, II.

434. _The Count de Fuentes to the Earl of Egremont, 25 Dec.

1761_, in Entick, V. 264. ] [Footnote 866: On this negotiation, see _Mémoire historique sur la Négociation de la France et de l'Angleterre_ (Paris, 1761), a French Government publication containing papers on both sides.

The British Ministry also published such documents as they saw fit, under the title of _Papers relating to the Rupture with Spain_.

Compare Adolphus, _George III.

_, I.

31-39. ] Choiseul replied with counter-propositions less humiliating to his nation.

When the question of accepting or rejecting them came before the Ministry, the views of Pitt prevailed by a majority of one, and, to the disappointment of Bute and the King, the conferences were broken off.

Choiseul, launched again on the billows of a disastrous war, had seen and provided against the event.

Ferdinand VI.

of Spain had died, and Carlos III.

had succeeded to his throne.

Here, as in England, change of kings brought change of policy.

While negotiating vainly with Pitt, the French Minister had negotiated secretly and successfully with Carlos; and the result was the treaty known as the Family Compact, having for its object the union of the various members of the House of Bourbon in common resistance to the growing power of England.

It provided that in any future war the Kings of France and Spain should act as one towards foreign Powers, insomuch that the enemy of either should be the enemy of both; and the Bourbon princes of Italy were invited to join in the covenant.

[867] What was more to the present purpose, a special agreement was concluded on the same day, by which Spain bound herself to declare war against England unless that Power should make peace with France before the first of May, 1762. For the safety of her colonies and her trade Spain felt it her interest to join her sister nation in putting a check on the vast expansion of British maritime power.

She could bring a hundred ships of war to aid the dilapidated navy of France, and the wealth of the Indies to aid her ruined treasury.

[Footnote 867: Flassan, _Diplomatie Française_, V. 317 (Paris, 1809).

] Pitt divined the secret treaty, and soon found evidence of it.

He resolved to demand at once full explanation from Spain; and, failing to receive a satisfactory reply, attack her at home and abroad before she was prepared.

On the second of October he laid his plan before a Cabinet Council held at a house in St. James Street.

There were present the Earl of Bute, the Duke of Newcastle, Earl Granville, Earl Temple, and others of the Ministry.

Pitt urged his views with great warmth.

"This," he exclaimed, "is the time for humbling the whole House of Bourbon!"

[868] His brother-in-law, Temple, supported him.

Newcastle kept silent.

Bute denounced the proposal, and the rest were of his mind.

"If these views are to be followed," said Pitt, "this is the last time I can sit at this board.

I was called to the administration of affairs by the voice of the people;

to them I have always considered myself as accountable for my conduct;

and therefore cannot remain in a situation which makes me responsible for measures I am no longer allowed to guide."

Nothing could be more offensive to George III.

and his adherents.

[Footnote 868: Beatson, II.

438. ] The veteran Carteret, Earl Granville, replied angrily: "I find the gentleman is determined to leave us; nor can I say I am sorry for it, since otherwise he would certainly have compelled us to leave him.

But if he is resolved to assume the office of exclusively advising His Majesty and directing the operations of the war, to what purpose are we called to this council?

When he talks of being responsible to the people, he talks the language of the House of Commons, and forgets that at this board he is responsible only to the King.

However, though he may possibly have convinced himself of his infallibility, still it remains that we should be equally convinced before we can resign our understandings to his direction, or join with him in the measure he proposes."

[869] [Footnote 869: _Annual Register, 1761_, p. 44. Adolphus, _George III.

_, I.

40. Thackeray, _Life of Chatham_, I. 592. ] Pitt resigned, and his colleagues rejoiced.

[870] Power fell to Bute and the Tories; and great was the fall.

The mass of the nation was with the defeated Minister.

On Lord Mayor's Day Bute and Barrington were passing St. Paul's in a coach, which the crowd mistook for that of Pitt, and cheered lustily; till one man, looking in at the window, shouted to the rest: "This isn't Pitt; it's Bute, and be damned to him!"

The cheers turned forthwith to hisses, mixed with cries of "No Bute!"

"No Newcastle salmon!"

"Pitt forever!"

Handfuls of mud were showered against the coach, and Barrington's ruffles were besmirched with it.

[871] [Footnote 870: Walpole, _George III.

_, I.

80, and note by Sir Denis Le Marchant, 80-82. ] [Footnote 871: _Nuthall to Lady Chatham, 12 Nov.

1761_, in _Chatham Correspondence_, II.

166. ] The fall of Pitt was like the knell of doom to Frederic of Prussia.

It meant abandonment by his only ally, and the loss of the subsidy which was his chief resource.

The darkness around him grew darker yet, and not a hope seemed left;

when as by miracle the clouds broke, and light streamed out of the blackness.

The bitterest of his foes, the Czarina Elizabeth, she whom he had called _infâme catin du Nord_, died, and was succeeded by her nephew, Peter III.

Here again, as in England and Spain, a new sovereign brought new measures.

The young Czar, simple and enthusiastic, admired the King of Prussia, thought him the paragon of heroes, and proclaimed himself his friend.

No sooner was he on the throne than Russia changed front.

From the foe of Frederic she became his ally; and in the opening campaign of 1762 the army that was to have aided in crushing him was ranged on his side.

It was a turn of fortune too sharp and sudden to endure.

Ill-balanced and extreme in all things, Peter plunged into headlong reforms, exasperated the clergy and the army, and alienated his wife, Catherine, who had hoped to rule in his name, and who now saw herself supplanted by his mistress.

Within six months he was deposed and strangled.

Catherine, one of whose lovers had borne part in the murder, reigned in his stead, conspicuous by the unbridled disorders of her life, and by powers of mind that mark her as the ablest of female sovereigns.

If she did not share her husband's enthusiasm for Frederic, neither did she share Elizabeth's hatred of him.

He, on his part, taught by hard experience, conciliated instead of insulting her, and she let him alone.

Peace with Russia brought peace with Sweden, and Austria with the Germanic Empire stood alone against him.

France needed all her strength to hold her own against the mixed English and German force under Ferdinand of Brunswick in the Rhine countries.

She made spasmodic efforts to seize upon Hanover, but the result was humiliating defeat.

In England George III.

pursued his policy of strengthening the prerogative, and, jealous of the Whig aristocracy, attacked it in the person of Newcastle.

In vain the old politician had played false with Pitt, and trimmed to please his young master.

He was worried into resigning his place in the Cabinet, and Bute, the obsequious agent of the royal will, succeeded him as First Lord of the Treasury.

Into his weak and unwilling hands now fell the task of carrying on the war; for the nation, elated with triumphs and full of fight, still called on its rulers for fresh efforts and fresh victories.

Pitt had proved a true prophet, and his enemies were put to shame; for the attitude of Spain forced Bute and his colleagues to the open rupture with her which the great Minister had vainly urged upon them; and a new and formidable war was now added to the old.

[872] Their counsels were weak and half-hearted;

but the armies and navies of England still felt the impulsion that the imperial hand of Pitt had given and the unconquerable spirit that he had roused.

[Footnote 872: _Declaration of War against the King of Spain, 4 Jan.

1762. _] This spirit had borne them from victory to victory.

In Asia they had driven the French from Pondicherry and all their Indian possessions; in Africa they had wrested from them Gorée and the Senegal country; in the West Indies they had taken Guadeloupe and Dominica; in the European seas they had captured ship after ship, routed and crippled the great fleet of Admiral Conflans, seized Belleisle, and defeated a bold attempt to invade Ireland.

The navy of France was reduced to helplessness.

Pitt, before his resignation, had planned a series of new operations, including an attack on Martinique, with other West Indian islands still left to France, and then in turn on the Spanish possessions of Havana, Panama, Manila, and the Philippines.

Now, more than ever before, the war appeared in its true character.

It was a contest for maritime and colonial ascendency; and England saw herself confronted by both her great rivals at once.

Admiral Rodney sailed for Martinique, and Brigadier Monckton joined him with troops from America.

Before the middle of February the whole island was in their hands; and Grenada, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent soon shared its fate.

The Earl of Albemarle and Admiral Sir George Pococke sailed in early spring on a more important errand, landed in June near Havana with eleven thousand soldiers, and attacked Moro Castle, the key of the city.

The pitiless sun of the tropic midsummer poured its fierce light and heat on the parched rocks where the men toiled at the trenches.

Earth was so scarce that hardly enough could be had to keep the fascines in place.

The siege works were little else than a mass of dry faggots; and when, after exhausting toil, the grand battery opened on the Spanish defences, it presently took fire, was consumed, and had to be made anew.

Fresh water failed, and the troops died by scores from thirst; fevers set in, killed many, and disabled nearly half the army.

The sea was strewn with floating corpses, and carrion-birds in clouds hovered over the populous graveyards and infected camps.

Yet the siege went on: a formidable sally was repulsed; Moro Castle was carried by storm; till at length, two months and eight days after the troops landed, Havana fell into their hands.

[873] At the same time Spain was attacked at the antipodes, and the loss of Manila and the Philippines gave her fresh cause to repent her rash compact with France.

She was hardly more fortunate near home; for having sent an army to invade Portugal, whichwas in the interest of England, a small British force, under Brigadier Burgoyne, foiled it, and forced it to retire.

[Footnote 873: _Journal of the Siege, by the Chief Engineer, in Beatson_, II.

544. Mante, 398-465. Entick, V. 363-383. ] The tide of British success was checked for an instant in Newfoundland, where a French squadron attacked St. John's and took it, with its garrison of sixty men.

The news reached Amherst at New York; his brother, Lieutenant-Colonel Amherst, was sent to the scene of the mishap.

St. John's was retaken, and its late conquerers were made prisoners of war.

The financial condition of France was desperate.

Her people were crushed with taxation; her debt grew apace; and her yearly expenditure was nearly double her revenue.

Choiseul felt the need of immediate peace; and George III.

and Bute were hardly less eager for it, to avert the danger of Pitt's return to power and give free scope to their schemes for strengthening the prerogative.

Therefore, in September, 1762, negotiations were resumed.

The Duke of Bedford was sent to Paris to settle the preliminaries, and the Duc de Nivernois came to London on the same errand.

The populace were still for war.

Bedford was hissed as he passed through the streets of London, and a mob hooted at the puny figure of Nivernois as he landed at Dover.

The great question was, Should Canada be restored?

Should France still be permitted to keep a foothold on the North American continent?

Ever since the capitulation of Montreal a swarm of pamphlets had discussed the momentous subject.

Some maintained that the acquisition of Canada was not an original object of the war; that the colony was of little value and ought to be given back to its old masters; that Guadeloupe should be kept instead, the sugar trade of that island being worth far more than the Canadian fur trade; and, lastly, that the British colonists, if no longer held in check by France, would spread themselves over the continent, learn to supply all their own wants, grow independent, and become dangerous.

Nor were these views confined to Englishmen.

There were foreign observers who clearly saw that the adhesion of her colonies to Great Britain would be jeopardized by the extinction of French power in America.

Choiseul warned Stanley that they "would not fail to shake off their dependence the moment Canada should be ceded;" while thirteen years before, the Swedish traveller Kalm declared that the presence of the French in America gave the best assurance to Great Britain that its own colonies would remain in due subjection.

[874] [Footnote 874: Kalm, _Travels in North America_, I. 207. ] The most noteworthy argument on the other side was that of Franklin, whose words find a strange commentary in the events of the next few years.

He affirmed that the colonies were so jealous of each other that they would never unite against England.

"If they could not agree to unite against the French and Indians, can it reasonably be supposed that there is any danger of their uniting against their own nation, which it is well known they all love much more than they love one another?

I will venture to say union amongst them for such a purpose is not merely improbable, it is impossible;"

that is, he prudently adds, without "the most grievous tyranny and oppression," like the bloody rule of "Alva in the Netherlands."

[875] [Footnote 875: _Interest of Great Britain in regard to her Colonies_ (London, 1760) Lord Bath argues for retaining Canada in _A Letter addressed to Two Great Men on the Prospect of Peace_ (1759).

He is answered by another pamphlet called _Remarks on the Letter to Two Great Men_ (1760).

The _Gentleman's Magazine_ for 1759 has an ironical article styled _Reasons for restoring Canada to the French_; and in 1761 a pamphlet against the restitution appeared under the title, _Importance of Canada considered in Two Letters to a Noble Lord_.

These are but a part of the writings on the question.

] If Pitt had been in office he would have demanded terms that must ruin past redemption the maritime and colonial power of France; but Bute was less exacting.

In November the plenipotentiaries of England, France, and Spain agreed on preliminaries of peace, in which the following were the essential points.

France ceded to Great Britain Canada and all her possessions on the North American continent east of the River Mississippi, except the city of New Orleans and a small adjacent district.

She renounced her claims to Acadia, and gave up to the conqueror the Island of Cape Breton, with all other islands in the Gulf and River of St. Lawrence.

Spain received back Havana, and paid for it by the cession of Florida, with all her other possessions east of the Mississippi.

France, subject to certain restrictions, was left free to fish in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and off a part of the coast of Newfoundland; and the two little islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon were given her as fishing stations on condition that she should not fortify or garrison them.

In the West Indies, England restored the captured islands of Guadeloupe, Marigalante, Désirade, and Martinique, and France ceded Grenada and the Grenadines;

while it was agreed that of the so-called neutral islands, St. Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago should belong to England, and St. Lucia to France.

In Europe, each side promised to give no more help to its allies in the German war.

France restored Minorca, and England restored Belleisle;

France gave up such parts of Hanoverian territory as she had occupied, and evacuated certain fortresses belonging to Prussia, pledging herself at the same time to demolish, under the inspection of English engineers, her own maritime fortress of Dunkirk.

In Africa France ceded Senegal, and received back the small Island of Gorée. In India she lost everything she had gained since the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle; recovered certain trading stations, but renounced the right of building forts or maintaining troops in Bengal.

On the day when the preliminaries were signed, France made a secret agreement with Spain, by which she divested herself of the last shred of her possessions on the North American continent.

As compensation for Florida, which her luckless ally had lost in her quarrel, she made over to the Spanish Crown the city of New Orleans, and under the name of Louisiana gave her the vast region spreading westward from the Mississippi towards the Pacific.

On the ninth of December the question of approving the preliminaries came up before both Houses of Parliament.

There was a long debate in the Commons.

Pitt was not present, confined, it was said, by gout; till late in the day the House was startled by repeated cheers from the outside.

The doors opened, and the fallen Minister entered, carried in the arms of his servants, and followed by an applauding crowd.

His bearers set him down within the bar, and by the help of a crutch he made his way with difficulty to his seat.

"There was a mixture of the very solemn and the theatric in this apparition," says Walpole, who was present.

"The moment was so well timed, the importance of the man and his services, the languor of his emaciated countenance, and the study bestowed on his dress were circumstances that struck solemnity into a patriot mind, and did a little furnish ridicule to the hardened and insensible.

He was dressed in black velvet, his legs and thighs wrapped in flannel, his feet covered with buskins of black cloth, and his hands with thick gloves."

Not for the first time, he was utilizing his maladies for purposes of stage effect.

He spoke for about three hours, sometimes standing, and sometimes seated; sometimes with a brief burst of power, more often with the accents of pain and exhaustion.

He highly commended the retention of Canada, but denounced the leaving to France a share in the fisheries, as well as other advantages tending to a possible revival of her maritime power.

But the Commons listened coldly, and by a great majority approved the preliminaries of peace.

These preliminaries were embodied in the definitive treaty concluded at Paris on the tenth of February, 1763. Peace between France and England brought peace between the warring nations of the Continent.

Austria, bereft of her allies, and exhausted by vain efforts to crush Frederic, gave up the attempt in despair, and signed the treaty of Hubertsburg.

The Seven Years War was ended.

Chapter 32